The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (155 page)
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Locke , John
(1632–1704)
English philosopher widely regarded as one of the fathers of the Enlightenment and as a key figure in the development of
liberalism
. Locke became a Student (i.e. Fellow) of Christ Church, Oxford in 1658, but his tutorial activities came to an end in 1667, seven years after the Restoration, when Locke moved into the household of Lord Ashley (formerly Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper , and subsequently Lord Shaftesbury ). His reputation as a political theorist rests upon
Two Treatises of Government
(1690); as a philosopher and founder of empiricism, on his
Essay Concerning Human Understanding
(1689). He also wrote the highly-regarded
Thoughts Concerning Education
(1693), the manuscript of which was based on letters written while he was staying in Holland (where Locke had travelled following the failure of Shaftesbury's political projects, and his death in 1683). His
Letter Concerning Toleration
(1693) deals with the proper extent of freedom of religious conscience. Its general claim was that rulers cannot have certain knowledge that the religion in which they believe is the true religion; but government is permitted to interfere if religion is a threat to order. Toleration could not be extended to atheists, who would not be bound by conventional oaths, nor to Roman Catholics whose allegiance lay elsewhere.
The Reasonableness of Christianity
(1695) stimulated considerable argument; Locke asserted that reason and revelation concurred in their specification of the law of nature ( see also
natural law
).
Two Treatises of Government
is ostensibly written as a refutation of the ideas of
Filmer
, who argued in his book
Patriarcha
, or the
Natural Right of Kings
that the liberal jurisprudents
Grotius
and
Pufendorf
had set out from false premisses. Whereas they had claimed that the world was originally given to all, and that property and government had subsequently arisen from agreement, Filmer argued that the Creation conferred upon Adam private property and the right to rule. Political authority was thus God-given, not conferred by the individual choice of previously free persons. Locke wanted to explain the origins of property and political authority, maintaining an interpretation of the biblical story as the creation of natural equality, without falling foul of Filmer's criticisms of incoherence in earlier natural rights theories. He conceived political authority to be the result of an agreement to introduce necessary protection for property, in which term he embraced ‘life, liberty and estate’. The government was entrusted with authority for limited purposes, and was liable to removal if it exceeded or abused its powers. Private property was explained, not by agreement, but by the activity of labour. In his account of legitimate appropriation from the common gift, Locke referred both to the right of the labourer to that with which his labour was mixed, and to the capacity of labour to confer value on its object. Many writers subsequently deployed a labour theory of property entitlement, or a
labour theory of value
, and the relationship between the two in the history of social thought is a complex matter. Locke's account of the origins of private property has led some commentators to see him as an apologist for a rising
bourgeoisie
, while others emphasize what they see as his Calvinism, and others an attachment to a landed interest. Locke aimed to depict political power as quite distinct from the power of a parent or from the power associated with property. He argued not only for limited government but for a
separation of powers
, the rule of law, and the legitimacy of rebellion in some circumstances.
The possible connection between these arguments and Locke's role in Shaftesbury's household has led to close investigation of the circumstances in which the
Two Treatises
was written. Shaftesbury had wanted to exclude the Catholic Duke of York (later James II) from acceding to the throne, and supported the (failed) Exclusion Bill to that end. The Exclusion Crisis has been put forward as the proper
context
for Locke's Second Treatise (which, some have argued, was written before the First, but placed after it when they were published in 1690). But Shaftesbury also thought of armed rebellion after that failure, and this has also been proposed as the context of the book's composition. This controversy about context has been invoked in assessments of the extent of Locke's radical democratic commitments: was he arguing that it would be legitimate for the people to take up arms against James if he became king? Or that the political élite would be justified in negating his claim to the throne through law? While Locke's liberal credentials can scarcely be doubted, there is no agreement on just what sort of liberal he was.
AR
English philosopher widely regarded as one of the fathers of the Enlightenment and as a key figure in the development of
liberalism
. Locke became a Student (i.e. Fellow) of Christ Church, Oxford in 1658, but his tutorial activities came to an end in 1667, seven years after the Restoration, when Locke moved into the household of Lord Ashley (formerly Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper , and subsequently Lord Shaftesbury ). His reputation as a political theorist rests upon
Two Treatises of Government
(1690); as a philosopher and founder of empiricism, on his
Essay Concerning Human Understanding
(1689). He also wrote the highly-regarded
Thoughts Concerning Education
(1693), the manuscript of which was based on letters written while he was staying in Holland (where Locke had travelled following the failure of Shaftesbury's political projects, and his death in 1683). His
Letter Concerning Toleration
(1693) deals with the proper extent of freedom of religious conscience. Its general claim was that rulers cannot have certain knowledge that the religion in which they believe is the true religion; but government is permitted to interfere if religion is a threat to order. Toleration could not be extended to atheists, who would not be bound by conventional oaths, nor to Roman Catholics whose allegiance lay elsewhere.
The Reasonableness of Christianity
(1695) stimulated considerable argument; Locke asserted that reason and revelation concurred in their specification of the law of nature ( see also
natural law
).
Two Treatises of Government
is ostensibly written as a refutation of the ideas of
Filmer
, who argued in his book
Patriarcha
, or the
Natural Right of Kings
that the liberal jurisprudents
Grotius
and
Pufendorf
had set out from false premisses. Whereas they had claimed that the world was originally given to all, and that property and government had subsequently arisen from agreement, Filmer argued that the Creation conferred upon Adam private property and the right to rule. Political authority was thus God-given, not conferred by the individual choice of previously free persons. Locke wanted to explain the origins of property and political authority, maintaining an interpretation of the biblical story as the creation of natural equality, without falling foul of Filmer's criticisms of incoherence in earlier natural rights theories. He conceived political authority to be the result of an agreement to introduce necessary protection for property, in which term he embraced ‘life, liberty and estate’. The government was entrusted with authority for limited purposes, and was liable to removal if it exceeded or abused its powers. Private property was explained, not by agreement, but by the activity of labour. In his account of legitimate appropriation from the common gift, Locke referred both to the right of the labourer to that with which his labour was mixed, and to the capacity of labour to confer value on its object. Many writers subsequently deployed a labour theory of property entitlement, or a
labour theory of value
, and the relationship between the two in the history of social thought is a complex matter. Locke's account of the origins of private property has led some commentators to see him as an apologist for a rising
bourgeoisie
, while others emphasize what they see as his Calvinism, and others an attachment to a landed interest. Locke aimed to depict political power as quite distinct from the power of a parent or from the power associated with property. He argued not only for limited government but for a
separation of powers
, the rule of law, and the legitimacy of rebellion in some circumstances.
The possible connection between these arguments and Locke's role in Shaftesbury's household has led to close investigation of the circumstances in which the
Two Treatises
was written. Shaftesbury had wanted to exclude the Catholic Duke of York (later James II) from acceding to the throne, and supported the (failed) Exclusion Bill to that end. The Exclusion Crisis has been put forward as the proper
context
for Locke's Second Treatise (which, some have argued, was written before the First, but placed after it when they were published in 1690). But Shaftesbury also thought of armed rebellion after that failure, and this has also been proposed as the context of the book's composition. This controversy about context has been invoked in assessments of the extent of Locke's radical democratic commitments: was he arguing that it would be legitimate for the people to take up arms against James if he became king? Or that the political élite would be justified in negating his claim to the throne through law? While Locke's liberal credentials can scarcely be doubted, there is no agreement on just what sort of liberal he was.
AR
logrolling
Vote trading between legislators, in order to obtain legislation or appropriations favourable to the legislator's home district, with the understanding that ‘you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours’.
Lomé Convention
Lord Chancellor
The Lord Chancellor has important functions in the judiciary, the legislature, and the executive of Britain. As the head of the legal profession the Lord Chancellor presides over hearings of the Law Lords, and selects judges, QCs (Queen's Counsel—senior advocates) and the heads of tribunals. In the House of Lords the Lord Chancellor acts as the Speaker, presiding over debate. In government the Lord Chancellor is a member of cabinet and the chief legal officer.
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