The Jewish Annotated New Testament (305 page)

13.1
–10:
The beast from the sea.

1
: Dan 7 is the immediate inspiration for beasts arising from sea and land, but they ultimately derive from ancient Semitic traditions about the primal chaos-monsters Leviathan and Behemoth (see “Chaos Monsters” above).
Ten horns and seven heads
, see 12.3–4n.
Blasphemous names
represent a perversion of the holy names on the foreheads of the 144,000 followers of the Lamb (7.3; 9.4).

2
: As in Dan 7.4–6, the beast’s polymorphic appearance indicates its monstrous nature, much as demons were imagined in Jewish and Christian protective spells.
Dragon
, Satan.
Authority
(cf. v. 4) suggests that the beast’s danger stems not just from its primal threat of chaos but also from a larger evil, as if all dangers are linked.

3
:
Death-blow
(or mortal wound), usually taken as a reference to the emperor Nero; following his 68 CE suicide by sword (Suetonius,
Nero
49.3–4), popular traditions in the eastern Mediterranean imagined his resurrection and reconquering of Rome. Several “new Neros” appeared in the later first century. Jewish sources despised him (
Sib. Or
. 3.68–74).

4
–7
: The beast is notable for inspiring general worship,
blaspheming
holy things, and persecuting the saints (cf. 12.17; 13.9–10), all ways that John imagines emperor veneration whether officially prescribed or not. These views of the emperor cult recall Dan 7.25; 11.36–39, referring to Antiochus IV Epiphanes.
Forty-two months
, three and a half years; see 11.1–2n.
Dwelling
(lit., “tent, tabernacle”) recalls Dan 11.31–39 and reflects contemporaneous fears that eschatological evil would involve a foreign ruler’s hubris in the Jerusalem Temple (see also 2 Thess 2.4, cf. Ezek 28.2; Isa 14.13–14). A later editor has clarified “dwelling” to refer to the saints.

8
:
Foundation of the world
, as translated this would imply that some are predestined to destruction; the phrase can also apply to
slaughtered
(see translators’ note
c
), implying that the Lamb’s sacrifice was performed at the beginning of creation.
Book of life
, see 3.5n.

13.11
–18: The beast from the earth.
The new behemoth is characterized chiefly by its deceptive qualities, resembling the Lamb (v. 11) and mimicking the thaumaturgy of the two prophets (vv. 13–14; cf. 11.5–6), but he encourages idolatry (vv. 14–15).

12
:
Mortal wound
, see v. 3n.

15
:
Image of the beast
, the notion of cult-images gaining “life” and thus “speaking” refers to statue oracles customary around the Greco-Roman world. Ritually infused with the god’s spirit, such statues could “speak” through sounds and movements, and communities depended on them in crisis situations.

16
–17
: The beast’s deceptiveness extends to a parody of the divine marks on the 144,000 (see “The Numerology of Revelation,” p.
475
).

18
:
Six hundred sixty-six
represents a “gematria” [Jewish numerology] of the name Nero Caesar, using the numerical equivalents of the Heb letters underlying the Gk spelling of Nero’s name: “Kaisar Nerōn” spelled in Heb is “qof-samek-resh” “nun-resh-vav-nun”; the numerical values are 100 + 60 + 200 + 50 + 200 + 6 + 50 = 666. (If the final “nun” is omitted, spelling “Nero” rather than “Neron,” the numbers add up to 616 [see translators’ note
a
].)

14.1
–5: The 144,000.
The unwholesome spectacle of the marked followers of the beast is balanced by the heavenly spectacle of the 144,000 with their divine marks (see “The Numerology of Revelation,” p.
475
).

1
:
Mount Zion
, Jerusalem.

2
: Heavenly perfection is expressed through the alternation of heavenly voices and chants.
Many waters
. see 1.15n.

3
:
Living creatures
, see 4.6n.

4
:
Defiled themselves
, the purity of the 144,000 is signified in their celibacy, which reflects Jewish holy-war practices (Ex 19.15; Deut 23.10–15; Rev 20.9; 1QM 7.3–7);
defiled themselves with women
recalls less the impure spilling of bodily substances (as in Deut 23) as the pollution that the Watchers incurred by joining with human women (
1 En
. 7.1; 9.8; 10.11; 15.3; 69.5). The implication is that the 144,000 are like angels, whose purity women threaten.
First fruits
, harvest offering meant to sanctify the totality of the harvest (see, e.g., Ex 23.19; 34.22; Lev 23.9–14), used in an apocalyptic sense to signify the first stage of eschatological redemption (see also 1 Cor 15.23).

14.6
–11:
Angelic announcements of judgment.

6
:
Eternal gospel
(Gk “euangelion,” as in Mk 1.1; 1 Cor 15.1) of proper obeisance to the God of creation; here the term preserves its more general meaning of “good news,” lacking any particular reference to Jesus.

7
:
Fear God
, Deut 10.12–15.

8
: Based on Isa 21.9, this announcement foreshadows the vision of Babylon in 17–19.
Babylon
as Rome, see
4 Ezra
3.1–2.
Wine of the wrath
, Jer 25.15–38.

9
–13
: The third angel’s declaration of imminent torment for the minions of the beast functions also as a curse, consigning them to eschatological torment.

9
:
Mark
, see 13.15–17.

10
:
Wine of God’s wrath
, see v. 8n.
Unmixed
, wine was typically diluted with water in this period; unmixed wine was especially potent.
Fire and sulfur
, as in the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen 19.24) and Gog and Magog (Ezek 38.22). The older name for
sulfur
, “brimstone,” survives in the phrase “fire and brimstone” (as in the KJV).

14.12
–13:
Rewards of the saints.

12
:
Commandments
, i.e., “mitzvot” (Gk “entolas”). Those who die in holiness will achieve a blessed state (cf.
4 Ezra
7.35; 8.33).

13
:
Deeds follow them
, in early Jewish visions of final judgment people are often accompanied by their deeds, personified as witnesses to their earthly activities (see Wis 4.20).

14.14
–20:
Reaping of the earth.

14
:
White cloud
, Dan 7.13. The one
like the Son of Man
, (cf. Dan 7.9–13) appears here as eschatological destroyer, perhaps inspired by Ps 110.5–6.

15
–16
: The heavenly
temple
serves as the source of eschatological instructions delivered by angels.
Sickle and reap
, the horrific harvest imagery, inspired by Joel 3.13 [Heb 4.13] and Isa 63.1–6 (cf. Isa 17.4–6; 24.13; Jer 51.33) became a standard metaphor for eschatological judgment by the early Roman period (
4 Ezra
4.28–32;
2 Bar
. 70.2; Mt 13.24–30).

18
:
Authority over fire
, see 8.3–5.

19
:
Wine press
, Isa 63.1–6.

20
:
Outside the city
, where polluting activities take place (1 Kings 21.13; Heb 13.11–12). The image of torrents of blood from massacred sinners, already noted in Joel and Isaiah, becomes a common motif in Roman Jewish (and Jewish-Christian) texts:
1 En
. 100.3;
6 Ezra
[2 Esd 15–16] 15.35–36; cf. Josephus,
J.W
. 6.406 (innocents massacred by Romans).
Blood
, for wine as metaphor for blood, see Gen 49.11; Deut 32.14; Sir 39.26.
Horse’s bridle
, see 19.15.
Two hundred miles
, Gk “1,600 stadia” (see translators’ footnote
a
), a number equal to 4 x 4 x 10 x 10; four is the number of earth, and ten signifies completeness. The blood thus covers the whole earth, in a recapitulation of flood-imagery (Gen 7.17–24).

15.1–
;4:
Universal acclamation.

1
:
Wrath … is ended
, cf. Gen 8.21–22; 9.11–17.

2
:
Sea of glass
stands before the throne (4.6).
Number of its name
, see 13.18n.

3
:
Song of Moses
, the scene evokes the Israelites before the Red Sea (Ex 14.30–15.19), where the first “Song of Moses” was sung.

4
:
All nations will come
, Isa 56.3–8; 60.3; Tob 13.11.

15.5
–8:
The heavenly temple.

5
:
Tent of witness
, Num 9.15. This moveable tabernacle accompanied the Israelites on their journey in the wilderness.

6
–7
: The
plagues
proceed from
bowls
[Gk “phialai”], cultic utensils typical to most temple rituals in antiquity, including Jerusalem (
Ep. Arist
. 33, 42, 79;
L.A.E
. 33.4;
Ant
. 12.40, 82).
Linen … sashes
, garments that recall Aaron’s vestments when offering the sacrifice of atonement (Lev 16.4).

8
:
Smoke
, Ex 19.18; Isa 6.1–4. Stormlike manifestations of God’s
glory
and
power
refer to Ezek 1.28, in which divine attributes have become separate agencies (cf. Ex 24.6; 40.34–35).