The Making of African America (41 page)

59
U.S. Census Bureau,
Negro Population, 1790—1915
(Washington DC, 1918), 65; Steckel, “African American Population of the United States” in Haines and Steckel, eds.,
Population History of North America,
465; Simon Kuznets, ed.,
Population Redistribution and Economic Growth in the United States
,
1870—1950,
3 vols. (Philadelphia, 1957—1964), 3: 90; Edward L. Ayers,
Promise of the New South: Life after Reconstruction
(New York, 1992), chap. 3, pp. 68—72; Cohen, At
Freedom's Edge,
chap. 9, p. 254; Edwin S. Redkey,
Black Nationalist and Back-to-Africa Movements, 1890—1910
(New Haven CT, 1969), 57; James T. Campbell,
Middle Passages: African American Journeys to Africa, 1787—2005
(New York, 2006), chaps. 3-4, esp. p. 103; Thomas C. Cox,
Blacks in Topeka, Kansas,
1865—
1915: A Social History
(Baton Rouge LA, 1982); Hahn,
A Nation Under our Feet.

60
Kuznets, ed.,
Population Redistribution and Economic Growth,
3: 90; Cohen, At
Freedom's Edge,
295—296.

61
Negro Population,
64; Karl E. Taeuber, “The Negro Population in the United States” in John P. Davis, ed.,
The American Negro Reference Book
(Englewood Cliffs NJ, 1966), 107; Thomas J. Woofter,
Negro Migration: Changes in Rural Organization and the Population of the Cotton Belt
(New York, 1969), 134; O‘Donovan, “Mapping Freedmen's Terrain,” 16.

62
Historical Statistics of the United States,
22.

63
David Barrow, “A Georgia Plantation,”
Scribner Monthly
21 (1881), 830-36; D. W. Meinig,
The Shaping ofAmerica,
4 vols. (New Haven CT, 1986—2004), 3:190—95; Charles S. Aiken, “New Settlement Patterns of Rural Blacks in the American South,”
Geographical Review
75 (1985), 383—404; Milton B. Newton, Jr., “Settlement Patterns as Artifacts of Social Structure” in Miles Richardson, ed., The
Human Mirror: Material and Spatial Images of Man
(Baton Rouge LA, 1974), 339—61; Joel Williamson,
After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina During Reconstruction, 1861—1877
(Chapel Hill NC, 1965), 278.

64
Dylan C. Penningroth,
The Claims of Kinfolk: African American Property and Community in the Nineteenth-Century South
(Chapel Hill NC, 2003), 158; Julie Seville,
The Work of Reconstruction: From Slave to Wage Worker in South Carolina, 1860—1870
(Cambridge UK, 1994), chap. 1.

65
Quoted in
Freedom,
ser. 3, vol. 1: 25, 46—52 and chap. 9; Frederick Law Olmsted,
The Cotton Kingdom: A Traveler's Observations on Cotton and Slavery,
Arthur M. Schlesinger, Sr., ed. (New York, 1984), 81; Ira Berlin et al., eds., “The Terrain of Freedom: The Struggle over the Meaning of Free Labor in the U. S. South,”
History Workshop
22 (1986), 127—28.

66
Quoted in Charles Joyner,
Down by the Riverside: A South Carolina Slave Community
(Urbana IL, 1984), 42—43;
Freedom,
ser. 3, vol. 1: chap. 3—4; Foner,
Reconstruction,
102—110, 153—170; Claude F. Oubre,
Forty Acres and a Mule: The Freedmen's Bureau and Black Land Ownership
(Baton Rouge LA, 1978); quoted in Major [James Roy] to Bvt. Lieut. Col. W. L. Berger, 9 Dec. 1865, filed with Major James P. Roy to Bvt. Lieut. Col. W. L. M. Burger, 1 Feb. 1866, Letters Received, Dept. of SC, RG 393, Pt. 1 [C-1385], National Archives. Bracketed number refers to the files at the Freedmen and Southern Society Project at the University of Maryland.

67
Freedom,
ser. 3, vol. 1, chaps. 3—4. The outlines of the new labor system appeared even before the war was over in the occupied South; see
Freedom,
ser. 1, vol. 1, chaps. 1—3;
Freedom,
ser. 1, vol. 2; Louis S. Gerteis,
From Contraband to Freedman: Federal Policy toward Southern Blacks,
1861—1865 (Westport CT, 1973); Foner,
Reconstruction,
78—84; Litwack,
Been in the Storm So Long,
chaps. 4—6.

68
Freedom,
ser. 3, vol. 1, chaps. 1—5, 7—8; Litwack,
Been in the Storm So Long,
4-8; Gerald David Jaynes,
Branches Without Roots: Genesis of the Black Workingclass in the American South, 1862—1882
(New York, 1986), chaps. 2—4; Roger L. Ransom and Richard Sutch,
One Kind of Freedom: The Economic Consequences ofEmancipation
(New York, 1977), chaps. 3-4; Thavolia Glymph, ”Freedpeople and Ex-Masters Shaping a New Order in the Post-Bellum South, 1865—1868” in Glymph and John J. Kushma, eds.,
Essays on the Postbellum South Economy
(College Station TX, 1985), 48—72.

69
Harold D. Woodman,
New South, New Law: The Legal Foundations of Credit and Labor Relations in the Postbellum Agricultural South
(Baton Rouge LA, 1995); Jaynes,
Branches Without Roots,
chap. 10.

70
Quoted in Eric Foner,
Nothing but Freedom: Emancipation and its Legacy
(Baton Rouge LA, 1983), 61; Harold D. Woodman, “Post-Civil War Southern Agricultural and the Law,”
Agricultural History 53
(1979), 319—37; Leon F. Litwack,
Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow
(New York, 1999), chap. 3.

71
Litwack,
Trouble in Mind,
esp. chap. 4.

72
Litwack,
Trouble in Mind,
esp. chaps. 5—6; Edward L. Ayers,
Vengeance and Justice: Crime and Punishment in the Nineteenth-Century American South
(New York, 1984), chap. 6; Alexander C. Lichtenstein,
Twice the Work of Free Labor: The Political Economy of Convict Labor in the New South
(London, 1996); Pete Daniel
The Shadow of Slavery: Peonage in the South, 1901—1969
(Urbana IL, 1972); Martha A. Myers,
Race, Labor, and Punishment in the New South
(Athens OH, 1998).

73
Litwack,
Trouble in Mind,
128; C. Vann Woodward,
The Origins of the New South
(Baton Rouge LA, 1971), 205—6; Neil Fligstein,
Going North: Migration of Blacks and Whites from the South, 1900—1950
(New York, 1950), 131; Joe William Trotter, Jr.,
The African American Experience
(Boston, 2001), 303. Quoted in Grossman,
Land of Hope,
109.

74
Quoted in Jay R. Mandle,
The Roots of Black Poverty: The Southern Plantation Economy after the Civil War
(Durham NC, 1978), 20.

75
Charles S. Johnson,
Shadow of the Plantation
(Chicago, 1934), 11; Wright,
Old
South,
New South,
65, 98; Mandle,
The Roots of Black Poverty,
20; Thomas J. Woofter,
Negro Problems in Cities
(Garden City NY, 1928), 88—89, 105.

76
Wright,
Old South, New South,
119—20.

77
James R. Grossman, “A Chance to Make Good, 1900—1929” in Robin D. G. Kelley and Earl Lewis, eds.,
To Make Our World Anew: A History of African Americans
(New York, 2000), 358.

78
C. Eric Lincoln and Lawrence H. Mamiya,
The Black Church in the African American Experience
(Durham NC, 1994), chap. 5.

79
For the linkage between the blues and the commitment to migration in search of freedom that would transform the African landscape, see Waldo F. Martin, “The Sounds of Blackness: African-American Music” in William R. Scott and William G. Shade, eds.,
Upon These Shores: Themes in the African American Experience
(New York, 2000), 260—61; Levine,
Black Culture and Black Consciousness,
202—97; William Barlow,
“Looking Up at Down”: The Emergence of Blues Culture
(Philadelphia, 1989), chaps. 1—2; Jeff Todd Tilton,
Early Down-home Blues: A Musical and Cultural Analysis
(Urbana IL, 1975); David Evans, “Blues: Chronological Overview” and Susan Oehler, “The Blues in Transcultural Context” both in Mellonee V. Burnim and Portia K. Maultsby, eds.,
African American Music: An Introduction
(New York, 2006), 97—126; Chase,
America's Music,
chap. 27.

80
Levine,
Black Culture and Black Consciousness,
esp. 221—22; Barlow, “Looking Up at Down,” chaps. 1—4; LeRoi Jones,
Blues People: The Negro Experience in White America and the Music that Developed From It
(New York, 1968), chap. 1; William Ferris, Jr.,
Blues from the Delta
(London, 1970), 11—55.

81
http://www.geocities.com/BourbonStreet/delta/2541/blflewis.htm
.

82
Steckel, “The African American Population of the United States” in Haines and Steckel, eds.,
Population History of North America,
464; Wright,
Old South, New South,
98, 200—5.

83
Leslie H. Fishel, Jr., “The Negro in Northern Politics, 1870—1900,”
Mississippi Valley Historical Review
42 (1955), 466—89; Desmund King and Stephen Tuck, “De-Centering the South: America's Nationwide White Supremacist Order After Reconstruction,”
Past and Present
194 (2007), 213—53; Joe William Trotter, Jr., “Blacks in the Urban North: The ‘Underclass Question' in Historical Perspective” in Michael B. Katz, ed.,
The “Underclass” Debate: Views from History
(Princeton NJ, 1993), 59—60; Edward Meeker and James Kau, “Racial Discrimination and Occupational Attainment at the Turn of the Century,”
Explorations in Economic
History 14 (1977), 250—76; Pleck,
Black Migration and Poverty,
128, 134—36; quoted in Joe William Trotter, Jr.,
Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1915—1945
(Urbana IL, 1985), 30—31.

84
Johnson,
Shadow of the Plantation
quoted in Litwack,
Been in the Storm So Long,
169.

85
Booker T. Washington,
Up From Slavery: An Autobiography
(New York, 1897), 219; also see Washington, “The Rural Negro and the South,”
Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections
41 (1914), 123; Louis R. Harlan,
Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856—1901
(NewYork, 1972), 213-19; Grossman,
Land of Hope,
81—82; Cohen,
Freedom's Edge,
249. Even after black people began to move north in large numbers, the presumption of their attachment to the South remained. In 1923,
Atlantic Monthly
summarized the conventional wisdom: “The Negro race was found almost entirely within the Southern states, and it was always assumed that it would probably remain there” in E. T. H. Shaffer, “A New South—The Negro Migration,”
Atlantic Monthly
132 (Sept. 1923), 403.

86
Guido Van Rijn, “Coolidge's Blue: African American Blues on Prohibition, Migration, Unemployment, and Jim Crow” in Robert Springer, ed.,
Nobody Knows Where The Blues Come From: Lyrics and History
(Jackson MS, 2006), 151—63.

1
U.S. Census Bureau,
Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970
(Washington DC, 1975), 22; Richard Easterlin, ”The Population of the United States since 1920” in Michael R. Haines and Richard H. Steckel, eds., A
Population History of North America
(Cambridge UK, 2000), 642; J. Trent Alexander, “Demographic Patterns of the Great Migration (1915—1940)” and “Demographic Patterns of the Great Black Migration (1940—1970)” both in Steven A. Reich, ed.,
Encyclopedia of the Great Black Migration,
2 vols. (Westport CT, 2006), 1: 236—43.

2
My understanding of the third passage includes what has been called the “Great Migration”—the movement northward that accompanied World War I and extends through the Great Depression, World War II, and beyond, or roughly the years between 1910 and 1970, at which point the movement of black people between North and South reversed course.

3
Carole Marks,
Farewell
—
We‘reGood and Gone: The Great Black Migration
(Bloomington IN, 1989), 1; George A. Davis and O. Fred Donaldson,
Blacks in the United States: A Geographic Perspective
(Boston, 1975), 34—37; Hope Eldridge and Dorothy Swaine Thomas,
Population Redistribution and Economic Growth, 1870—1950
(Philadelphia, 1964), 90; James N. Gregory,
The Southern Diaspora: How the Great Migrations of Black and White Southerners Transformed America
(Chapel Hill NC, 2005), 14; Thomas J. Woofter,
Negro Migration: Changes in Rural Organization and the Population of the Cotton Belt
(New York, 1920), 134. The counties which compose the Alabama black belt are: Autauga, Bullock, Dallas, Greene, Hale, Lowndes, Macon, Marengo, Montgomery, Perry, Russell, Sumter, and Wilcox.

4
Blaine Brownell and David Goldfield,
Urban America: From Downtown to No Town
(Boston, 1979), 259—63; Joe W. Trotter, Jr., ed.,
The Great Migration in Historical Perspective: New Dimensions of Race, Class, and Gender
(Bloomington IN, 1991), 482; James R. Grossman,
Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration
(Chicago, 1989), 48;
Historical Statistics of the United States,
pt. 1: 95. Because of the differences in origins, size, and direction between migrations that accompanied the first and second world wars, some historians and demographers have treated them as distinct events. See, for example, Alexander, “Demographic Patterns of the Great Black Migration (1915—1940)” and “Demographic Patterns of the Great Black Migration (1940—1970)” both in Reich, ed.,
Encyclopedia of the Great Black Migration,
1: 236—43.

5
Rex R. Campbell, Daniel M. Johnson, and Gary J. Strangler, “Return Migration of Black People to the South,”
Rural Sociology
39 (1974), 514—28; Reynolds Farley and Walter R. Allen,
The Color Line and the Quality ofLifein America
(New York, 1989), 117—28; John Cromartie and Carol B. Stack, “Reinterpretation of Black Return and Nonreturn Migration to the South, 1975—1980,”
Geographical Review
79 (1989), 300; Carol Stack,
Call to Home: African Americans Reclaim the Rural South
(New York, 1996); Michael A. Stoll, “African Americans and the Color Line” in Reynolds Farley and John Hagga, eds.,
The American People: Census
2000 (New York, 2005), 402—3; Gregory,
Southern Diaspora,
39—40; Gregory, “The Southern Diaspora and the Urban Dispossessed: Demonstrating the Census Public Use Microdata Samples,”
Journal of American History
82 (1995), 130.