The Making of African America (44 page)

71
Mellonee V. Burnim, “Religious Music” in Burnim and Maultsby, eds.,
African American Music,
61—73; Michael Harris,
Rise of Gospel Blues: The Music of Thomas Andrew Dorsey in the Urban Church
(New York, 1992); Bernice Johnson Reagon, ed.,
We'll Understand It Better By and By: Pioneering African American Gospel Composers
(Washington DC, 1992); Lawrence W. Levine,
Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom
(New York, 1978), 174—89. A thoughtful meditation on the parsing of African American culture by class divisions can be found in Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, “Rethinking Vernacular Culture: Black Religious and Race Records in the 1920s and 1930s” in Wahneema Lubiana, ed.,
The House That Race Built: Black American, U.S. Terrain
(New York, 1997), 157—77.

72
David Evans, “Blues: A Chronological Overview” and Oehler, “The Blues in Transcultural Contexts” both in Burnim and Maultsby, eds.,
African American Music,
79—126; William Barlow,
“Looking Up at Down”: The Emergence of Blues Culture
(Philadelphia, 1989); Levine,
Black Culture and Black Consciousness,
202—97. For the rise of the blues women, see Daphne Duval Harrison,
Black Pearls: Blues Queens ofthe1920s
(New Brunswick NJ, 1988).

73
Charles Keil,
Urban Blues
(Chicago, 1966); Evans, “Blues: A Chronological Overview” in Burnim and Maultsby, eds.,
African American
Music, 79—126; Barlow,
“Looking Up at Down,”
chaps. 5—9.

74
Peter Guralnick,
Dream Boogie: The Triumph of Sam Cooke
(New York, 2005), 315—450; Brian Ward,
Just My Soul Responding: Rhythm and Blues, Black Consciousness, and Race Relations
(Berkeley CA, 1998), chap. 4; Portia K. Maultsby, “Rhythm and Blues” and “Soul” and Bernice Johnson Reagon, “Civil Rights Movement” all in Burnim and Maultsby, eds.,
African American Music,
245—91, 598—624.

75
Michael Taft,
Talkin'to Myself:Blues Lyrics, 1921—1942
(New York, 2005).

76
Ingrid Monson, “Jazz, Chronological Overview” and Travis A. Jackson “Interpreting Jazz” both in Burnim and Maultsby, eds.,
African American Music,
145—184; Gilbert Chase,
America's Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present,
3rd ed. (Urbana IL, 1987), chap. 28; Peretti,
The Creation ofJazz;
Paul F. Berliner,
Thinking in Jazz: The Infinite Art of Improvisation
(Chicago, 1994).

1
David M. Reimers,
Other Immigrants: The Global Origins of the American People
(New York, 2005), esp. chap. 9; Karl E. Taeuber “The Negro Population in the United States” in John P. Davis, ed.,
The American Negro Reference Book
(Englewood Cliffs NJ, 1966), 109; Philip Kasinitz,
Caribbean New York: Black Immigrants and the Politics of Race
(Ithaca NY, 1992), chap. 1; Marilyn Halters,
Between Race and Ethnicity: Cape Verdean American Immigrants,
1860—1965 (Chicago, 1993); quoted in Stanley Lieberson, “Selective Black Migration from the South: A Historical View” in Frank D. Bean and W. Parker Frisbiecorn, eds.,
The Demography of Racial and Ethnic Groups
(New York, 1978), 122.

2
Aristide R. Zolberg,
A Nation By Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America
(Cambridge MA, 2006), 370—75. The 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act established a 20,000 person per nation limit for the nations of the Eastern Hemisphere and with a total hemispheric allotment of 170,000 and a hemispheric limit for the Western Hemisphere of 120,000.

3
Zolberg,
A Nation By Design,
326—33; Reimers,
Other Immigrants,
chap. 9, esp. 238; Dirk Hoerder,
Cultures in Contact: World Migrations in the Second Millennium
(Durham NC, 2002), 513—14.

4
Marilyn Halter, “Africa: West” in Mary C. Waters and Reed Ueda, eds.,
The New Americans: A Guide to Immigration since
1965 (Cambridge MA, 2007), 283-84; Abdi Kusow, “Africa: East” in
ibid.,
297—98. Halter, “Africa: West” in Waters and Ueda, eds.,
The New Americans,
283, suggests an undercount of immigrants in the United States. For the census category of “Hispanics—origins, of all races,” see Hoerder,
Cultures in Contact,
525. In 2000, 11 percent of the foreign-born population from Latin America was black and some 3 percent was both Hispanic and black.

5
Mary C. Waters and Reed Ueda, “Introduction” in Waters and Ueda, eds.,
The New Americans,
5; John R. Logan and Glenn Deane, “Black Diversity in Metropolitan America,” Lewis Munford Center for Comparative Urban and Regional Research, Aug. 15, 2003, 12;
http://w3.uchastings.edu/wingate/PDF/Black_Diversity_final.pdf
.

6
Waters and Ueda, “Introduction” in Waters and Ueda, eds.,
The New Americans,
5.

7
Hoerder,
Cultures in Contact,
528; Sarah Collinson,
Beyond Borders: Western European Migration Policy Towards the 21st Century
(London, 1993), 36—37; April Gordon, “The New Diaspora—African Immigration to the United States,”
Journal of Third World Studies
15 (1998), 84—85.

8
U.S. Department of Justice,
Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service
(Washington DC, 1991, 1995); Reimers,
Other Immigrants,
232—33, 250—60; Kasinitz,
Caribbean New York,
19—31; Milton Vickerman,
Crosscurrents: West Indian Immigrants and Race
(New York, 1999), 64; Calvin B. Holder, “West Indies: Antigua, Bahamas, Barbados, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guyana, Martinique, St. Kitts, Trinidad” in Waters and Ueda, eds.,
The New Americans,
675; Flore Zéphir,
The Haitian Americans
(Westport CT, 2004), chap. 4; Howard Dotson and Sylviane A. Diouf,
In Motion: The African-American Migration Experience
(New York, 2004), 176—83.

9
U.S. Census Bureau,
Profile of the Foreign-Born Population in the United States:
2000 (Washington DC, 2001), 10; David Dixon, “Characteristics of the African Born in the United States” (January 2006); Elizabeth Grieco, “The African Foreign Born in the United States” (September 2004), and Jill Wilson, “African-born Residents of the United States” (August 2000), all in Migration Information Source (
www.migrationinformation.org
); Violet M. Showers Johnson, “‘What, Then, Is the African American?' African and Afro-Caribbean Identities in Black America,”
Journal of American Ethnic History
28 (2008), 82—83; Reimers,
Other Immigrants,
232—33, 242; Halter, “Africa: West” and Kusow, “Africa: East” in Waters and Ueda, eds.,
The New Americans,
283, 296; John A. Arthur,
The African Diaspora in the United States and Europe: The Ghanaian Experience
(Burling-ton VT, 2008), 2—4. In 1960, about 35,000 Africans had registered in the United States. U.S. Census Bureau,
Profile of the Foreign-Born Population in the United States:
2000 (Washington DC, 2001), 10. Approximately 71,000 Ethiopians, 68,000 Ghanaians, 44,000 Kenyans, 43,000 Liberians, and 37,000 Somalis resided in the United States in 2000.

10
Dotson and Diouf,
In Motion,
200. Similar undercounts of black immigrants from the Caribbean, especially Haitians: see Flore Zéphir,
Haitian Immigrants
in
Black America: A Sociological and Sociolinguistic Portrait
(Westport CT, 1996), 8, and Zéphir,
Haitian Americans,
chap. 4; Anthony V. Catanese,
Haitian: Migration and Diaspora
(Boulder CO, 1999), 87; John Logan, “Who Are the Other African-Americans? Contemporary African and Caribbean Immigrants in the United States” in Yoku Shaw-Taylor and Steven Tuch, eds.,
The Other African Americans: Contemporary African and Caribbean Immigrants in the United States
(Lanham MD, 2007), 49—53.

11
Kofi K. Apraku,
African Émigrés in the United States: A Missing Link in Africa's Social and Economic Development
(New York, 1991), chaps. 1, 4—5. That sojourners composed a large portion of the fourth passage does not distinguish them from previous generations of European immigrants, some 30 percent of whom also returned home. See Frank Thistlewaite, “Migration from Europe Overseas in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries” in Rudolph J. Vecoli and Suzanne M. Sinke,
A Century of European Migrations, 1830—1930
(Urbana IL, 1991) and Mark Wyman,
Round Trip America: The Immigrants Return to Europe, 1880—1930
(Ithaca NY, 1993).

12
Paul Stoller,
Money Has No Smell: The Africanization of New York
(Chicago, 2002); Arthur,
African Diaspora,
especially chaps. 3, 9; Reimers,
Other Immigrants,
234—35: quoted in Francois Pierre-Louis, Jr.,
Haitians in New York City: Transnationalism and Hometown Associations
(Gainesville FL, 2006), 1; also Michael J. Piore,
Birds of Passage: Migrant Labor in Industrial Societies
(Cambridge UK, 1979), 65.

13
U.S. Census Bureau,
Profile of the Foreign-Born Population in the United States:
2000 (Washington DC, 2001), 27; Dixon, “Characteristics of the African Born in the United States.”

14
Reimers,
Other Immigrants,
chap. 9; Arthur,
African Diaspora,
75-76; Halter, “Africa: West” and Kusow, “Africa: East” in Waters and Ueda, eds.,
The New Americans,
284—86 and 296; Agyemang Attah-Poku, The
Socio-Cultural Adjustment: The Role of Ghanaian Immigrant Associations in America
(Brookview VT, 1996) chap. 3.

15
U.S. Census Bureau,
Profile of the Foreign-Born Population in the United States:
2000 (Washington DC, 2001), 37, 41; Reimers,
Other Immigrants,
235—36, 246—47; F. Nii-Amoo Dodoo, “Assimilation Differences among Africans in America,”
Social Forces
76 (1997), 527—46; Dixon, “Characteristics of the African Born in the United States”; Kusow, “Africa: East” and Holder, “West Indies” in Waters and Ueda, eds.,
The New Americans,
296—302 and 676,682—85; Apraku,
African Émigrés
, chap. 1.

16
Reimers,
Other Immigrants,
237—38; Kusow, “Africa: East” and Lisa Konczal and Alex Stepick, “Haiti” in Waters and Ueda, eds.,
The New Americans,
301—2 and 445—57.

17
U.S. Census Bureau,
Profile of the Foreign-Born Population in the United States:
2000 (Washington DC, 2001), 47; Vickerman,
Crosscurrents,
chap. 2, esp. 67—75; Kristin F. Butcher, “Black Immigrants in the United States: A Comparison with Native Blacks and Other Immigrants,”
Industrial Relations Review
47 (1994), 265—84; F. Nii-Amoo Dodoo and Baffour K. Takyi, “Africans in the Diaspora: Black-White Earnings Differences among America's Africans,”
Ethnic and Racial Studies,
25 (2002); Dixon, “Characteristics of the African Born in the United States”; Halter, “Africa: West” and Kusow, “Africa: East” in Waters and Ueda, eds.,
The New Americans,
291—93 and 299—300. For an excellent discussion of immigrant entrepreneurial activities in one city, see Marilyn Halter, ed., New
Migrants in the Marketplace: Boston's Ethnic Entrepreneurs
(Amherst MA, 1995), esp. chaps. 4, 8. Mary C. Waters traces the long debate over the comparative success of Afro-West Indian immigrants and African American natives from the work of Ira de A. Reid
(The Negro Immigrant: His Background Characteristics and Social Adjustment, 1899—1937
[New York, 1939]) early in the twentieth century through Thomas Sowell (“Three Black Histories” in Sowell,
Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups
[Washington DC, 1978]), Dennis Forsythe (“Black Immigrants and the American Ethos: Theories and Observations” in Roy S. Bryce-Laporte and Delores M. Mortimer, eds.,
Caribbean Immigrants in the United States
[Washington DC, 1976], 55—62), Stephen Steinberg
(The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America
[Boston, 1989]), Suzanne Model (“Caribbean Immigrants: A Black Successful Story,”
International Migration Review
25 [1991], 248—76), and Jennifer L. Hochschild
(Facing Up to the American Dream: Race, Class, and the Soul of the Nation
[Princeton NJ, 1995]), and adds her own analysis in Waters,
Black Identities: West Indian Immigrants Dreams and American Realities
(Cambridge MA, 1999), chap. 4. Also see Vickerman,
Crosscurrents,
74—75.

18
Wilson, “African-born Residents of the United States,” Aug. 1, 2000, Migration Information Source (
www.migrationinformantion.org
); Baffour K. Takyi and Kwame Safo Boate, “Location and Settlement Patterns of African Immigrants in the U.S.: Demographic and Spatial Context” in Kwadwo Konadu-Agyemang, Baffour K. Takyi, and John Arthur, eds.,
The New African Diaspora in North America
(Lanham MD, 2006), 50—68. Also William Finnegan, “New in Town: The Somalis of Lewiston,”
The New Yorker,
Dec. 11, 2006, 46—58.

19
Waters,
Black Identities,
22—23; Jon D. Holtzman,
NuerJourneys,Nuer Lives: Sudanese Refugees in Minnesota,
2nd ed. (Boston, 2007), chap. 2.

20
In 2000, 95 percent of Africans lived in metropolitan areas, with almost halfliving in ten cities, with the New York and Washington metropolitan areas having the largest agglomerations of Africans. U.S. Census Bureau,
Profile of the Foreign-Born Population in the United States: 2000
(Washington DC, 2001), 16—18; Wilson, “African-born Residents of the United States,” Aug. 1, 2000, Migration Information Source (
www.migrationinformantion.org
); Halter, “Africa: West” in Waters and Ueda, eds.,
The New Americans,
291—93, 299—300; Logan and Deane, “Black Diversity in Metropolitan American,” 1. For the immigrant population, see Reuel Rogers, “‘Black Like Who?': Afro-Caribbean Immigrants, African Americans, and the Politics of Group Identity” in Nancy Foner, ed.,
Islands in the City: West Indian Migration to New York
(Berkeley CA, 2001), 163—64; Reimers,
Other Immigrants,
246—48.