The Making of African America (42 page)

6
The six million total is a net migration rate and does not include those who migrated to the North and returned to the South. Many black Southerners migrated North, but returned to the South—thus participating in the northward migration.

7
Davis and Donaldson,
Blacks in the United States,
30—31; Gregory,
Southern Diaspora,
17—18; Steckel, “The African American Population of the United States” in Haines and Steckel, eds.,
A Population History of North America,
465; Reynolds Farley,
Growth of the Black Population: A Study of Demographic Trends
(Chicago, 1970), 50.

8
Brownell and Goldfield,
Urban America,
260; Karl E. Taeuber “The Negro Population in the United States” in John P. Davis, ed.,
The American Negro Reference
Book (Englewood Cliffs NJ, 1966), 116—34; Farley and Allen,
The Color Line and the Quality of Life in America,
103—4; Gregory, “The Southern Diaspora and the Urban Dispossessed,” 117; Howard Dodson and Sylviane A. Diouf,
In Motion: The African-American Migration Experience
(Washington DC, 2004), 136; Peter Gottlieb,
Making Their Own Way: Southern Blacks' Migration to Pittsburgh, 1916
—
1930
(Urbana IL, 1987), 1.

9
Brownell and Goldfield,
Urban America,
260; Frank Hobbs and Nicole Stoops,
Demographic Trends in the Twentieth Century
(Washington DC, 2002), 260.

10
In analyzing the cause of the Great Migration, scholars have given different weight to the various pushes and pulls which set it in motion; my account is drawn from the following: Grossman,
Land of Hope;
Gregory,
Southern Diaspora;
Marks,
Farewell;
Florette Henri,
Black Migration: Movement North, 1900—1920
(Garden City NY, 1975); Neil Fligstein,
Going North: Migration of Blacks and Whites from the South, 1900—1950
(New York, 1981); Gottlieb,
Making Their Own Way;
Kimberley L. Phillips,
AlabamaNorth: African-American Migrants, Community,
and
Working-Class Activism in Cleveland, 1915—45
(Urbana IL, 1999); Trotter, ed.,
The Great Migration in Historical Perspective.

11
Phillips,
AlabamaNorth,
57; Roi Ottley,
The Lonely Warrior: The Life and Times of Robert
S.
Abbott
(Chicago, 1955).

12
Davis and Donaldson,
Blacks in the United States,
35; Gavin Wright,
Old South, New South: Revolutions in the Southern Economy since the Civil War
(New York, 1986), 95—96, 203—5.

13
Grossman,
Land of Hope,
30; quoted in E. Franklin Frazier,
The Negro Family in the United States
(Chicago, 1966), 210, and R. H. Leavell, “The Negro Migration from Mississippi” in Leavell et al.,
Negro Migration in
1916—17 (Washington DC, 1919), 17. Also see Marks,
Farewell,
chap. 3.

14
Wright,
Old South, New South,
203—5; Marks,
Farewell,
chap. 3; quoted in Leavell, “The Negro Migration from Mississippi,” 17, and Marks, “In Search of the Promised Land: Black Migration and Urbanization, 1900—1940” in William R. Scott and William G. Slade, eds.,
Upon These Shores: Themes in the African American Experience, 1600 to the Present
(New York, 2000), 188.

15
William M. Tuttle, Jr.,
Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919
(New York, 1970), 74—107; Grossman,
Land of Hope,
chap. 2; Phillips,
AlabamaNorth,
53.

16
Wright,
Old South, New South,
chap. 7, esp. 231—33; Pete Daniel,
Breaking the Land: The Transformation of Cotton, Tobacco, and Rice Cultures since 1880
(Urbana IL, 1985);
Historical Statistics of the United States,
pt. 1, 109—153.

17
Wright,
Old South, New South,
223—34.

18
Daniel,
Breaking the Land,
chaps. 2—4; Gilbert C. Fite,
Cotton Fields No More: Southern Agriculture, 1865—1980
(Lexington KY, 1984), chaps. 8—9; Neil Fligstein, “The Transformation of Southern Agriculture and the Migration of Blacks and Whites, 1930—1950,”
International Migration Review
17 (1983), 273; Craig W. Heinicke, “African American Migration and the Mechanized Cotton Harvesting,
1950—1960,” Explorations in Economic History
31 (1994), 501—20;
Historical Statistics of the United States,
pt. 1, 109—153; Grossman,
Land of Hope,
48; Brownell and Goldfield,
Urban America,
chaps. 10—11.

19
Edward L. Ayers,
The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction
(New York, 1993), chap. 6; Neil R. McMillen,
Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow
(Urbana IL, 1989); Leon F. Litwack,
Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age ofJimCrow
(New York, 1998); Grossman,
Land of Hope,
16—19; quoted in Kusmer,
A Ghetto Takes Shape,
225.

20
Quoted in Theodore Rosengarten,
All God's Dangers: The Life of Nate Shaw
(New York, 1974), 27.

21
Ira de A. Reid, “Special Problems of Negro Migration During the War” in Milbank
Memorial Fund Quarterly, Postwar Problems of Migration
(New York, 1947), 155; Gregory,
Southern Diaspora,
37; quoted in Grossman,
Land of Hope,
3.

22
Peter Gottlieb, “Rethinking the Great Migration: A Perspective from Pittsburgh” in Trotter, ed.,
The Great Migration,
74. For a similar development in Flint, Michigan, see Gregory,
Southern Diaspora,
29. Also Trotter, eds.,
The Great Migration,
482.

23
Gregory,
Southern Diaspora,
365, n. 27; Jacqueline Jones,
Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present
(New York, 1985), 153—60; Darlene Clark Hine, ”Black Migration to the Urban Midwest: The Gender Dimension, 1915—1945” in Trotter, ed.,
The Great Migration,
127—46; Leslie Brown, “African American Women and Migration” in S. Jay Kleinberg, Eileen Boris, and Vicki L. Ruiz, eds., The Practice of U.S.
Women's History: Narrative, Intersections, and Dialogues
(New Brunswick NJ, 2007), 204; Beverly A. Bunch-Lyons,
Contested Terrain: African American Women Migrate from the South to Cincinnati, 1900—1950
(New York, 2002), 23—42; quoted in Elizabeth Rauh Bethel,
Promiseland: A Century ofLifein a Negro Community
(Philadelphia, 1981), 122.

24
Taeuber “The Negro Population in the United States” in Davis, ed.,
American Negro Reference
Book, 112—113; Wright,
Old South, New South,
96—97; Clyde V. Kiser,
Sea Island to City: A Study of St. Helena Islanders in Harlem and Other Urban Centers
(New York, 1967), 117, 131, 144; Kusmer,
A Ghetto Takes Shape,
39, 149.

25
Marks,
Farewell,
34—48; C. Horace Hamilton, “Educational Selectivity of Net Migration from the South,”
Social Forces
38 (1959), 33—42; Stewart E. Tolnay, “Educational Selection in the Migration of Southern Blacks, 1880—1990,”
Social Forces
77 (1998), 487—514; Gregory,
Southern Diaspora,
28, 30-33; Wright,
Old South, New South,
246—55; Elizabeth H. Pleck,
Black Migration and Poverty: Boston, 1865—1900
(New York, 1979), chap. 3. On literacy of the first immigrants and decline over time see Stanley Lieberson, “Selective Black Migration from the South: A Historical View” in Frank D. Bean and W. Parker Frisbie, eds.,
The Demography of Racial and Ethnic Groups
(New York, 1978), 122. For the migration of musicians, see Burton W. Peretti,
The Creation of Jazz: Music, Race, and Culture in Urban America
(Urbana IL, 1992), 43—45.

26
Malaika Adero, ed.,
Up South: Stories, Studies, and Letters of this Century's African-American Migrations
(New York, 1993), xvii; also Dwayne E. Walls,
The Chicken Bone Special
(New York, 1970).

27
Grossman,
Land of Hope,
112—13; quoted from Armstrong,
Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans
(New York, 1954), 229—30.

28
Henri,
Black Migration,
66; Marks,
Farewell,
36—37; Abraham Epstein,
The Negro Migrant in Pittsburgh
(New York, [1918] 1969), 35.

29
Grossman,
Land of Hope,
2, 109—111; quoted in Richard Wright,
Black Boy
(Chicago, 1947), 181.

30
Abraham Epstein,
The Negro Migrant in Pittsburgh
(New York, [1918] 1969), 27.

31
Marks,
Farewell,
chap. 2, esp. 20—21; Gottlieb,
Making Their Own Way,
49—55; Phillips,
AlabamaNorth,
54—55. For an explication of the theory of chain migrations, see John McDonald and Leatrice McDonald, “Chain Migration, Ethnic Neighborhood Formation, and Social Networks,”
Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly
42 (1964), 82—97, and for how migrating pioneers make movement more accessible and cheaper for those who follow, see Douglas Massey, “Why Does Immigration Occur?” in Charles Hirschman, Philip Kasinitz, and Josh DeWind, eds.,
The Handbook of International Migration: The American Experience
(New York, 1999), 45.

32
Grossman,
Land of Hope,
chap. 3; also see Henri,
Black Migration,
chap. 2.

33
Grossman,
Land of Hope,
chap. 3; Cromartie and Stack, “Reinterpretation of Black Return and Non Return Migration,” 299—309.

34
Phillips,
AlabamaNorth,
62—63; Kusmer,
A Ghetto Takes Shape,
39—41, 160—62.

35
For a discussion of so-called stage or step migration, see J. Trent Alexander, “The Great Migration in Comparative Perspective: Interpreting the Urban Origins of Southern Black Migrants to Depression-Era Pittsburgh,”
Social Science History
22 (1998), 349—37; Taeuber, “The Negro Population in the United States” in Davis, ed.,
American Negro Reference Book,
129—130; and for repeated migration, see Julie DaVanzo, “Repeat Migration in the United States: Who Moves Back and Who Moves On?,”
Review of Economics and Statistics
65 (1983), 552—59; Wright,
Black Boy,
221; Leslie Brown, “African American Women and Migration,” 204.

36
Emmett J. Scott,
Negro Migration during the War
(New York, 1969), 106, 134; quoted in Dotson and Diouf,
In Motion,
120; Henry Louis Gates, Jr., “New Negroes, Migration, and Cultural Exchange” in Elizabeth Hutton Turner, ed.,
Jacob Lawrence: The Migration Series
(Washington DC, 1993), 17—21; Gottlieb,
Making Their Own Way,
3-45; Gerald D. Jaynes, “Blacks in the Economy from Reconstruction to World War I” in Scott and Slade, eds.,
Upon These Shores,
185. DuBois had noted the same phenomenon early in the twentieth century. Michael B. Katz and Thomas J. Sugrue, W. E. B.
DuBois, Race, and the City: The Philadelphia Negro and Its Legacy
(Philadelphia, 1998), 76.

37
Gottlieb,
Making Their Own Way,
29—31; Kiser,
Sea Island to City,
154; Walls, The
Chicken Bone Special.

38
Emitt J. Scott, ed., “Letters from Negro Migrants of 1916—1918,”
Journal of Negro History
4 (1919), 334.

39
Otis Hicks, Greyhound Blues,
http://www.geocities.com/BourbonStreet/delta/2541/bllslim.htm#Greyhound466
.

40
Grossman,
Land of Hope,
113—115; quoted in Richard Wright,
American Hunger
(New York, 1977), 307.

41
Grossman,
Land of Hope,
113—17.

42
Walter Licht,
Getting Work: Philadelphia, 1840—1950
(Cambridge MA, 1992), 32—33; Allan H. Spear,
Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890—1920
(Chicago, 1967), 29; Kusmer,
Ghetto Takes Shape,
chap. 4; Warren C. Whatley and Gavin Wright, “Race, Human Capital, and Labour Markets in American History” in George Grantham and Mary MacKinnon, eds.,
Labour Market Evolutions: The Economic History of Market Integration, Wage Flexibility, and Employment Relation
(New York, 1994), 280—81; David M. Katzman,
Before the Ghetto: Black Detroit in the Nineteenth Century
(Urbana IL 1973), 217—22; Pleck,
Black Migration,
chap. 2; Joe William Trotter, Jr.,
The African American Experience
(Boston, 2001), 311; quoted in W. E. B. DuBois,
The Philadelphia Negro
(Philadelphia, 1899), 323.

43
August Meier, “Negro Class Structure and Ideology in the Age of Booker T. Washington,”
Phylon
23 (1962), 258—66; Meier,
Negro Thought in America, 1880
—
1915: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington
(Ann Arbor MI, 1963), esp. chap. 9; DuBois,
The Philadelphia Negro,
310—21, 340—51; Kusmer,
Ghetto Takes Shape,
chaps. 1, 5; Spear,
Black Chicago,
chap. 3; Marcy S. Sacks,
Before Harlem: The Black Experience in New York City before World War I
(Philadelphia, 2006); Katzman,
Before the Ghetto,
chaps. 4—6; Bart Landry,
The New Black Middle Class
(Berkeley CA, 1987), 19—20.

44
Kusmer,
Ghetto Takes Shape,
26—28, 75—78, 99—103, 114—40, 165—70, 236—43; Katzman,
Before the Ghetto,
chaps. 4—6; Licht,
Getting Work,
32—33; St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton,
Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern
City (New York, 1945), chap. 9; Trotter,
The African American Experience,
310; quoted in Spear,
Black Chicago,
168 and Bayard Still, ed.,
Urban America: A History with Documents
(Boston, 1974), 279.