The New Jim Crow (46 page)
Authors: Michelle Alexander
36
Megan Twohey, “SWATs Under Fire,”
National Journal
, Jan. 1, 2000, 37; Balko,
Overkill
, 8.
Megan Twohey, “SWATs Under Fire,”
National Journal
, Jan. 1, 2000, 37; Balko,
Overkill
, 8.
37
Timothy Egan, “Soldiers of the Drug War Remain on Duty,”
New York Times
, Mar. 1, 1999.
Timothy Egan, “Soldiers of the Drug War Remain on Duty,”
New York Times
, Mar. 1, 1999.
38
Ibid., 8-9.
Ibid., 8-9.
39
Scott Andron, “SWAT: Coming to a Town Near You?”
Miami Herald
, May 20, 2002.
Scott Andron, “SWAT: Coming to a Town Near You?”
Miami Herald
, May 20, 2002.
40
Balko,
Overkill
, 11, citing Peter Kraska, “Researching the Police-Military Blur: Lessons Learned,”
Police Forum
14, no. 3 (2005).
Balko,
Overkill
, 11, citing Peter Kraska, “Researching the Police-Military Blur: Lessons Learned,”
Police Forum
14, no. 3 (2005).
41
Balko,
Overkill
, 11, citing Britt Robson, “Friendly Fire,”
Minneapolis City Pages
, Sept. 17, 1997.
Balko,
Overkill
, 11, citing Britt Robson, “Friendly Fire,”
Minneapolis City Pages
, Sept. 17, 1997.
42
Ibid., 43 (citing Kraska research).
Ibid., 43 (citing Kraska research).
43
Ibid., 49 (citing
Village Voice
).
Ibid., 49 (citing
Village Voice
).
44
Ibid., 50; “Not All Marijuana Law Victims Are Arrested: Police Officer Who Fatally Shot Suspected Marijuana User Cleared of Criminal Charges,” NORML News, July 13, 1995,
druglibrary.org/olsen/NORML/WEEKLY/95-07-13.html
; Timothy Lynch,
After Prohibition
(Washington, DC: Cato Institute, 2000), 82; and various sources citing “Dodge County Detective Can’t Remember Fatal Shot; Unarmed Man Killed in Drug Raid at His Home,”
Milwaukee Journal-Sentinel
, Apr. 29, 1995, A1, and “The Week,”
National Review
, June 12, 1995, 14.
Ibid., 50; “Not All Marijuana Law Victims Are Arrested: Police Officer Who Fatally Shot Suspected Marijuana User Cleared of Criminal Charges,” NORML News, July 13, 1995,
druglibrary.org/olsen/NORML/WEEKLY/95-07-13.html
; Timothy Lynch,
After Prohibition
(Washington, DC: Cato Institute, 2000), 82; and various sources citing “Dodge County Detective Can’t Remember Fatal Shot; Unarmed Man Killed in Drug Raid at His Home,”
Milwaukee Journal-Sentinel
, Apr. 29, 1995, A1, and “The Week,”
National Review
, June 12, 1995, 14.
45
Ibid., 10, citing Steven Elbow, “Hooked on SWAT: Fueled with Drug Enforcement Money, Military-Style Police Teams Are Exploding in the Backwoods of Wisconsin,”
Madison Capitol Times
, Aug. 18, 2001.
Ibid., 10, citing Steven Elbow, “Hooked on SWAT: Fueled with Drug Enforcement Money, Military-Style Police Teams Are Exploding in the Backwoods of Wisconsin,”
Madison Capitol Times
, Aug. 18, 2001.
46
Eric Blumenson and Eva Nilson, “Policing for Profit: The Drug War’s Hidden Economic Agenda,”
University of Chicago Law Review
65 (1998): 35, 45.
Eric Blumenson and Eva Nilson, “Policing for Profit: The Drug War’s Hidden Economic Agenda,”
University of Chicago Law Review
65 (1998): 35, 45.
47
Ibid., 64.
Ibid., 64.
48
Blumenson and Nilson, “Policing for Profit,” 72.
Blumenson and Nilson, “Policing for Profit,” 72.
49
Ibid., 71.
Ibid., 71.
50
Ibid., 82.
Ibid., 82.
51
Ibid.
Ibid.
52
Ibid., 83.
Ibid., 83.
53
Ibid.
Ibid.
54
Ibid.
Ibid.
55
Ibid., 98.
Ibid., 98.
56
Michael Fessier Jr., “Trail’s End Deep in a Wild Canyon West of Malibu, a Controversial Law Brought Together a Zealous Sheriff’s Deputy and an Eccentric Recluse; a Few Seconds Later, Donald Scott Was Dead,”
Los Angeles Times Magazine
, Aug. 1, 1993; and Office of the District Attorney of Ventura, California,
Report on the Death of Donald Scott
(Ventura: Mar. 30, 1993), available at www.fear.org/chron/scott.txt.
Michael Fessier Jr., “Trail’s End Deep in a Wild Canyon West of Malibu, a Controversial Law Brought Together a Zealous Sheriff’s Deputy and an Eccentric Recluse; a Few Seconds Later, Donald Scott Was Dead,”
Los Angeles Times Magazine
, Aug. 1, 1993; and Office of the District Attorney of Ventura, California,
Report on the Death of Donald Scott
(Ventura: Mar. 30, 1993), available at www.fear.org/chron/scott.txt.
57
Peter D. Lepsch, “Wanted: Civil Forfeiture Reform,”
Drug Policy Letter
, Summer 1997, 12.
Peter D. Lepsch, “Wanted: Civil Forfeiture Reform,”
Drug Policy Letter
, Summer 1997, 12.
58
James Massey, Susan Miller, and Anna Wilhelmi, “Civil Forfeiture of Property: The Victimization of Women as Innocent Owners and Third Parties,” in
Crime Control and Women
, ed. Susan Miller (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998), 17.
James Massey, Susan Miller, and Anna Wilhelmi, “Civil Forfeiture of Property: The Victimization of Women as Innocent Owners and Third Parties,” in
Crime Control and Women
, ed. Susan Miller (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998), 17.
59
United States v. One Parcel of Real Estate Located at 9818 S.W. 94 Terrace
, 788 F. Supp. 561, 565 (S.D. Fla. 1992).
United States v. One Parcel of Real Estate Located at 9818 S.W. 94 Terrace
, 788 F. Supp. 561, 565 (S.D. Fla. 1992).
60
David Hunt, “Obama Fields Questions on Jacksonville Crime,”
Florida Times-Union
, Sept. 22, 2008.
David Hunt, “Obama Fields Questions on Jacksonville Crime,”
Florida Times-Union
, Sept. 22, 2008.
61
John Balzar, “The System: Deals, Deadlines, Few Trials,”
Los Angeles Times
, Sept. 4, 2006.
John Balzar, “The System: Deals, Deadlines, Few Trials,”
Los Angeles Times
, Sept. 4, 2006.
62
Marc Mauer and Ryan S. King,
Schools and Prisons: Fifty Years After Brown v. Board of Education
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, Apr. 2004), 4.
Marc Mauer and Ryan S. King,
Schools and Prisons: Fifty Years After Brown v. Board of Education
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, Apr. 2004), 4.
63
Laura Parker, “8 Years in a Louisiana Jail but He Never Went to Trial,”
USA Today
, Aug. 29, 2005.
Laura Parker, “8 Years in a Louisiana Jail but He Never Went to Trial,”
USA Today
, Aug. 29, 2005.
64
Mauer and King,
Schools and Prisons
, 4.
Mauer and King,
Schools and Prisons
, 4.
65
American Bar Association, Standing Committee on Legal Aid and Indigent Defendants,
Gideon’s Broken Promise: America’s Continuing Quest for Equal Justice
(Washington, DC: American Bar Association, Dec. 2004), Executive Summary IV; adopted by American Bar Association House of Delegates, Aug. 9, 2005,
www.abanet.org/leadership/2005/annual/dailyjournal/107.doc
.
American Bar Association, Standing Committee on Legal Aid and Indigent Defendants,
Gideon’s Broken Promise: America’s Continuing Quest for Equal Justice
(Washington, DC: American Bar Association, Dec. 2004), Executive Summary IV; adopted by American Bar Association House of Delegates, Aug. 9, 2005,
www.abanet.org/leadership/2005/annual/dailyjournal/107.doc
.
66
Parker, “8 Years in a Louisiana Jail.”
Parker, “8 Years in a Louisiana Jail.”
67
Kim Brooks and Darlene Kamine, eds.,
Justice Cut Short: An Assessment of Access to Counsel and Quality of Representation in Delinquency Proceedings In Ohio
(Columbus: Ohio State Bar Foundation, Mar. 2003), 28.
Kim Brooks and Darlene Kamine, eds.,
Justice Cut Short: An Assessment of Access to Counsel and Quality of Representation in Delinquency Proceedings In Ohio
(Columbus: Ohio State Bar Foundation, Mar. 2003), 28.
68
Mauer,
Race to Incarcerate
, 35-37.
Mauer,
Race to Incarcerate
, 35-37.
69
See Angela J. Davis,
Arbitrary Justice: The Power of the American Prosecutor
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 31-33.
See Angela J. Davis,
Arbitrary Justice: The Power of the American Prosecutor
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 31-33.
70
See Alexandra Natapoff, “Snitching: The Institutional and Communal Consequences,”
University of Cincinnati Law Review
645 (2004); and Emily Jane Dodds, “I’ll Make You a Deal: How Repeat Informants Are Corrupting the Criminal Justice System and What to Do About It,”
William and Mary Law Review
50 (2008): 1063.
See Alexandra Natapoff, “Snitching: The Institutional and Communal Consequences,”
University of Cincinnati Law Review
645 (2004); and Emily Jane Dodds, “I’ll Make You a Deal: How Repeat Informants Are Corrupting the Criminal Justice System and What to Do About It,”
William and Mary Law Review
50 (2008): 1063.
71
See “Riverside Drug Cases Under Review Over Use of Secret Informant,” Associated Press, Aug. 20, 2004; Ruben Narvette Jr., “Blame Stretches Far and Wide in Drug Scandal,”
Dallas Morning News,
Nov. 14, 2003; Rob Warden,
How Snitch Testimony Sent Randy Steidl and Other Innocent Americans to Death Row
(Chicago: Northwestern University School of Law, Center for Wrongful Convictions, 2004-5); “The Informant Trap,”
National Law Journal
, Mar. 6, 1995; Steven Mills and Ken Armstrong, “The Jailhouse Informant,”
Chicago Tribune
, Nov. 16, 1999; and Ted Rohrlich and Robert Stewart, “Jailhouse Snitches: Trading Lies for Freedom,”
Los Angeles Times
, Apr. 16, 1989.
See “Riverside Drug Cases Under Review Over Use of Secret Informant,” Associated Press, Aug. 20, 2004; Ruben Narvette Jr., “Blame Stretches Far and Wide in Drug Scandal,”
Dallas Morning News,
Nov. 14, 2003; Rob Warden,
How Snitch Testimony Sent Randy Steidl and Other Innocent Americans to Death Row
(Chicago: Northwestern University School of Law, Center for Wrongful Convictions, 2004-5); “The Informant Trap,”
National Law Journal
, Mar. 6, 1995; Steven Mills and Ken Armstrong, “The Jailhouse Informant,”
Chicago Tribune
, Nov. 16, 1999; and Ted Rohrlich and Robert Stewart, “Jailhouse Snitches: Trading Lies for Freedom,”
Los Angeles Times
, Apr. 16, 1989.
72
See Adam Liptak, “Consensus on Counting the Innocent: We Can’t,”
The New York Times
, Mar. 25, 2008; and Adam Liptak, “Study Suspects Thousands of False Confessions,”
New York Times
, Apr. 19, 2004.
See Adam Liptak, “Consensus on Counting the Innocent: We Can’t,”
The New York Times
, Mar. 25, 2008; and Adam Liptak, “Study Suspects Thousands of False Confessions,”
New York Times
, Apr. 19, 2004.
73
Christopher J. Mumola and Jennifer C. Karberg,
Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Oct. 2006); and Ashley Nellis, Judy Greene, and Marc Mauer,
Reducing Racial Disparity in the Criminal Justice System: A Manual for Practitioners and Policymakers
, 2d ed. (Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, 2008), 8.
Christopher J. Mumola and Jennifer C. Karberg,
Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Oct. 2006); and Ashley Nellis, Judy Greene, and Marc Mauer,
Reducing Racial Disparity in the Criminal Justice System: A Manual for Practitioners and Policymakers
, 2d ed. (Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, 2008), 8.
74
Hutto v. Davis
, 454 U.S. 370 (1982).
Hutto v. Davis
, 454 U.S. 370 (1982).
75
Harmelin v. Michigan
, 501 U.S. 967 (1991).
Harmelin v. Michigan
, 501 U.S. 967 (1991).
76
Marc Mauer, “The Hidden Problem of Time Served in Prison,”
Social Research
74, no. 2 (Summer 2007): 701, 703.
Marc Mauer, “The Hidden Problem of Time Served in Prison,”
Social Research
74, no. 2 (Summer 2007): 701, 703.
77
Lockyer v. Andrade
, 538 U.S. 63 (2003).
Lockyer v. Andrade
, 538 U.S. 63 (2003).
78
Anne Gearam, “Supreme Court Upholds ‘Three Strikes Law,’” Associated Press, Mar. 5, 2003.
Anne Gearam, “Supreme Court Upholds ‘Three Strikes Law,’” Associated Press, Mar. 5, 2003.
79
See Families Against Mandatory Minimums, “Profiles of Injustice,” at
www.famm.org/ProfilesofInjustice/FederalProfiles/MarcusBoyd.aspx
.
See Families Against Mandatory Minimums, “Profiles of Injustice,” at
www.famm.org/ProfilesofInjustice/FederalProfiles/MarcusBoyd.aspx
.
80
Marc Mauer, “Hidden Problem,” 701-2.
Marc Mauer, “Hidden Problem,” 701-2.
81
“Criticizing Sentencing Rules, US Judge Resigns,”
New York Times,
Sept. 30, 1990.
“Criticizing Sentencing Rules, US Judge Resigns,”
New York Times,
Sept. 30, 1990.
82
Joseph Treaster, “Two Federal Judges, in Protest, Refuse to Accept Drug Cases,”
New York Times
, Apr. 17, 1993.
Joseph Treaster, “Two Federal Judges, in Protest, Refuse to Accept Drug Cases,”
New York Times
, Apr. 17, 1993.
83
Chris Carmody, “Revolt to Sentencing is Gaining Momentum,”
National Law Journal,
May 17, 1993, 10.
Chris Carmody, “Revolt to Sentencing is Gaining Momentum,”
National Law Journal,
May 17, 1993, 10.
84
Stuart Taylor Jr., “Ten Years for Two Ounces,”
American Lawyer
, Mar. 1990, 65-66.
Stuart Taylor Jr., “Ten Years for Two Ounces,”
American Lawyer
, Mar. 1990, 65-66.
85
Michael Jacobson,
Downsizing Prisons: How to Reduce Crime and End Mass Incarceration
(New York: New York University Press, 2005), 215.
Michael Jacobson,
Downsizing Prisons: How to Reduce Crime and End Mass Incarceration
(New York: New York University Press, 2005), 215.
86
See Mauer,
Race to Incarcerate
, 33, 36-38, citing Warren Young and Mark Brown.
See Mauer,
Race to Incarcerate
, 33, 36-38, citing Warren Young and Mark Brown.
87
PEW Center for the States,
One in 31
.
PEW Center for the States,
One in 31
.
88
Jeremy Travis,
But They All Come Back: Facing the Challenges of Prisoner Reentry
(Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 2002), 32, citing Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Jeremy Travis,
But They All Come Back: Facing the Challenges of Prisoner Reentry
(Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 2002), 32, citing Bureau of Justice Statistics.
89
Ibid., 94, citing Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Ibid., 94, citing Bureau of Justice Statistics.
90
Ibid.
Ibid.
91
Ibid., 32.
Ibid., 32.
92
Ibid.
Ibid.
93
Ibid., 49, citing Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Ibid., 49, citing Bureau of Justice Statistics.
94
Loïc Wacquant, “The New ‘Peculiar Institution’: On the Prison as Surrogate Ghetto,”
Theoretical Criminology
4, no. 3 (2000): 377-89.
Chapter 3: The Color of JusticeLoïc Wacquant, “The New ‘Peculiar Institution’: On the Prison as Surrogate Ghetto,”
Theoretical Criminology
4, no. 3 (2000): 377-89.
1
Frontline, The Plea, at
www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/plea/four/stewart.html
; and Angela Davis,
Arbitrary Justice: The Power of the American Prosecutor
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 50-52.
Frontline, The Plea, at
www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/plea/four/stewart.html
; and Angela Davis,
Arbitrary Justice: The Power of the American Prosecutor
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 50-52.
2
American Civil Liberties Union,
Stories of ACLU Clients Swept Up in the Hearne Drug Bust of November 2000
(Washington, DC: American Civil Liberties Union, Nov. 1, 2002),
www.aclu.org/DrugPolicy/DrugPolicy.cfm?ID=11160&c=80
.
American Civil Liberties Union,
Stories of ACLU Clients Swept Up in the Hearne Drug Bust of November 2000
(Washington, DC: American Civil Liberties Union, Nov. 1, 2002),
www.aclu.org/DrugPolicy/DrugPolicy.cfm?ID=11160&c=80
.
3
Human Rights Watch,
Punishment and Prejudice: Racial Disparities in the War on Drugs
, HRW Reports, vol. 12, no. 2 (May 2000).
Human Rights Watch,
Punishment and Prejudice: Racial Disparities in the War on Drugs
, HRW Reports, vol. 12, no. 2 (May 2000).
4
Ibid.
Ibid.
5
Jeremy Travis,
But They All Come Back: Facing the Challenges of Prisoner Reentry
(Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 2002), 28.
Jeremy Travis,
But They All Come Back: Facing the Challenges of Prisoner Reentry
(Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 2002), 28.
6
Ibid.
Ibid.
7
Ibid.
Ibid.
8
Marc Mauer and Ryan S. King,
Schools and Prisons: Fifty Years After
Brown v. Board of Education (Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, Apr. 2004), 3.
Marc Mauer and Ryan S. King,
Schools and Prisons: Fifty Years After
Brown v. Board of Education (Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, Apr. 2004), 3.
9
Marc Mauer,
The Changing Racial Dynamics of the War on Drugs
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, Apr. 2009).
Marc Mauer,
The Changing Racial Dynamics of the War on Drugs
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, Apr. 2009).
10
See, e.g., U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration,
Summary of Findings from the 2000 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse,
NHSDA series H-13, DHHS pub. no. SMA 01-3549 (Rockville, MD: 2001), reporting that 6.4 percent of whites, 6.4 percent of blacks, and 5.3 percent of Hispanics were current illegal drug users in 2000;
Results from the 2002 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings
, NSDUH series H-22, DHHS pub. no. SMA 03-3836 (2003), revealing nearly identical rates of illegal drug use among whites and blacks, only a single percentage point between them;
Results from the 2007 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings
, NSDUH series H-34, DHHS pub. no. SMA 08-4343 (2007) showing essentially the same findings; and Marc Mauer and Ryan S. King,
A 25-Year Quagmire: The War on Drugs and Its Impact on American Society
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, Sept. 2007), 19, citing a study suggesting that African Americans have slightly higher rates of illegal drug use than whites.
See, e.g., U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration,
Summary of Findings from the 2000 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse,
NHSDA series H-13, DHHS pub. no. SMA 01-3549 (Rockville, MD: 2001), reporting that 6.4 percent of whites, 6.4 percent of blacks, and 5.3 percent of Hispanics were current illegal drug users in 2000;
Results from the 2002 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings
, NSDUH series H-22, DHHS pub. no. SMA 03-3836 (2003), revealing nearly identical rates of illegal drug use among whites and blacks, only a single percentage point between them;
Results from the 2007 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings
, NSDUH series H-34, DHHS pub. no. SMA 08-4343 (2007) showing essentially the same findings; and Marc Mauer and Ryan S. King,
A 25-Year Quagmire: The War on Drugs and Its Impact on American Society
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, Sept. 2007), 19, citing a study suggesting that African Americans have slightly higher rates of illegal drug use than whites.
11
See, e.g., Howard N. Snyder and Melissa Sickman,
Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 2006 National Report
, U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (Washington, DC: 2006), reporting that white youth are more likely than black youth to engage in illegal drug sales; Lloyd D. Johnson, Patrick M. O’Malley, Jerald G. Bachman, and John E. Schulenberg,
Monitoring the Future, National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975- 2006, vol. 1, Secondary School Students
, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH pub. no. 07-6205 (Bethesda, MD: 2007), 32, stating “African American 12th graders have consistently shown lower usage rates than White 12th graders for most drugs, both licit and illicit”; and Lloyd D. Johnston, Patrick M. O’Malley, and Jerald G. Bachman,
Monitoring the Future: National Results on Adolescent Drug Use: Overview of Key Findings 2002
, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH pub. no. 03-5374 (Bethesda, MD: 2003), presenting data showing that African American adolescents have slightly lower rates of illicit drug use than their white counterparts.
See, e.g., Howard N. Snyder and Melissa Sickman,
Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 2006 National Report
, U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (Washington, DC: 2006), reporting that white youth are more likely than black youth to engage in illegal drug sales; Lloyd D. Johnson, Patrick M. O’Malley, Jerald G. Bachman, and John E. Schulenberg,
Monitoring the Future, National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975- 2006, vol. 1, Secondary School Students
, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH pub. no. 07-6205 (Bethesda, MD: 2007), 32, stating “African American 12th graders have consistently shown lower usage rates than White 12th graders for most drugs, both licit and illicit”; and Lloyd D. Johnston, Patrick M. O’Malley, and Jerald G. Bachman,
Monitoring the Future: National Results on Adolescent Drug Use: Overview of Key Findings 2002
, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH pub. no. 03-5374 (Bethesda, MD: 2003), presenting data showing that African American adolescents have slightly lower rates of illicit drug use than their white counterparts.
12
National Institute on Drug Abuse,
Monitoring the Future, National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975-1999
, vol. 1,
Secondary School Students
(Washington, DC: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2000).
National Institute on Drug Abuse,
Monitoring the Future, National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975-1999
, vol. 1,
Secondary School Students
(Washington, DC: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2000).
13
U.S. Department of Health,
National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1999
(Washington, DC: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies, 2000), table G, p. 71,
www.samhsa.gov/statistics/statistics.html
.
U.S. Department of Health,
National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1999
(Washington, DC: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies, 2000), table G, p. 71,
www.samhsa.gov/statistics/statistics.html
.
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