The New Jim Crow (48 page)
Authors: Michelle Alexander
80
For a discussion of possible replacement effects, see Robert MacCoun and Peter Reuter,
Drug War Heresies: Learning from Other Vices, Times, and Places
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
For a discussion of possible replacement effects, see Robert MacCoun and Peter Reuter,
Drug War Heresies: Learning from Other Vices, Times, and Places
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
81
See Katherine Beckett, Kris Nyrop, Lori Pfingst, and Melissa Bowen, “Drug Use, Drug Possession Arrests, and the Question of Race: Lessons from Seattle,”
Social Problems
52, no. 3 (2005): 419-41; and Katherine Beckett, Kris Nyrop, and Lori Pfingst, “Race, Drugs and Policing: Understanding Disparities in Drug Delivery Arrests,”
Criminology
44, no. 1 (2006): 105.
See Katherine Beckett, Kris Nyrop, Lori Pfingst, and Melissa Bowen, “Drug Use, Drug Possession Arrests, and the Question of Race: Lessons from Seattle,”
Social Problems
52, no. 3 (2005): 419-41; and Katherine Beckett, Kris Nyrop, and Lori Pfingst, “Race, Drugs and Policing: Understanding Disparities in Drug Delivery Arrests,”
Criminology
44, no. 1 (2006): 105.
82
Beckett, “Drug Use,” 436.
Beckett, “Drug Use,” 436.
83
Ibid.
Ibid.
84
Ibid.
Ibid.
85
David Cole,
No Equal Justice: Race and Class in the American Criminal Justice System
(New York: The New Press, 1999), 161.
David Cole,
No Equal Justice: Race and Class in the American Criminal Justice System
(New York: The New Press, 1999), 161.
86
Ibid., 162.
Ibid., 162.
87
City of Los Angeles v. Lyons
, 461 U.S. 95, 105 (1983).
City of Los Angeles v. Lyons
, 461 U.S. 95, 105 (1983).
88
Quern v. Jordan
, 440 U.S. 332 (1979); and
Will v. Mich. Dept. of State Police
, 491 U.S. 58 (1989).
Quern v. Jordan
, 440 U.S. 332 (1979); and
Will v. Mich. Dept. of State Police
, 491 U.S. 58 (1989).
89
Monell v. Dept. of Social Services
, 436 U.S. 658 (1978).
Monell v. Dept. of Social Services
, 436 U.S. 658 (1978).
90
See
United States v. Brignoni-Ponce
, 422 U.S. 873 (1975); and
United States v. Martinez-Fuerte
, 428 U.S. 543 (1976).
See
United States v. Brignoni-Ponce
, 422 U.S. 873 (1975); and
United States v. Martinez-Fuerte
, 428 U.S. 543 (1976).
91
See Massey,
American Apartheid
.
See Massey,
American Apartheid
.
92
For a thoughtful overview of these studies, see David Harris,
Profiles in Injustice: Why Racial Profiling Cannot Work
(New York: The New Press, 2002).
For a thoughtful overview of these studies, see David Harris,
Profiles in Injustice: Why Racial Profiling Cannot Work
(New York: The New Press, 2002).
93
State v. Soto
, 324 N.J.Super. 66, 69-77, 83-85, 734 A.2d 350, 352-56, 360 (N.J. Super. Ct. Law Div. 1996).
State v. Soto
, 324 N.J.Super. 66, 69-77, 83-85, 734 A.2d 350, 352-56, 360 (N.J. Super. Ct. Law Div. 1996).
94
Harris,
Profiles in Injustice
, 80.
Harris,
Profiles in Injustice
, 80.
95
Ibid.
Ibid.
96
Jeff Brazil and Steve Berry, “Color of Drivers Is Key to Stops on I-95 Videos,”
Orlando Sentinel
, Aug. 23, 1992; and David Harris, “Driving While Black and All Other Traffic Offenses: The Supreme Court and Pretextual Traffic Stops,”
Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology
87 (1997): 544, 561-62.
Jeff Brazil and Steve Berry, “Color of Drivers Is Key to Stops on I-95 Videos,”
Orlando Sentinel
, Aug. 23, 1992; and David Harris, “Driving While Black and All Other Traffic Offenses: The Supreme Court and Pretextual Traffic Stops,”
Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology
87 (1997): 544, 561-62.
97
ACLU,
Driving While Black: Racial Profiling on our Nation’s Highways
(New York: American Civil Liberties Union, 1999) 3, 27-28.
ACLU,
Driving While Black: Racial Profiling on our Nation’s Highways
(New York: American Civil Liberties Union, 1999) 3, 27-28.
98
See
www.aclunc.org
, press release, “Oakland Police Department Announces Results of Racial Profiling Data Collection,” May 11, 2001.
See
www.aclunc.org
, press release, “Oakland Police Department Announces Results of Racial Profiling Data Collection,” May 11, 2001.
99
Al Baker and Emily Vasquez, “Number of People Stopped by Police Soars in New York,”
New York Times
, Feb. 3, 2007.
Al Baker and Emily Vasquez, “Number of People Stopped by Police Soars in New York,”
New York Times
, Feb. 3, 2007.
100
Office of the Attorney General of New York State,
Report on the New York City Police Department’s “Stop & Frisk” Practices
(New York: Office of the Attorney General of New York State, 1999), 95, 111, 121, 126.
Office of the Attorney General of New York State,
Report on the New York City Police Department’s “Stop & Frisk” Practices
(New York: Office of the Attorney General of New York State, 1999), 95, 111, 121, 126.
101
Ibid., 117 n. 23
Ibid., 117 n. 23
102
Baker and Vasquez, “Number of People Stopped by Police Soars.”
Baker and Vasquez, “Number of People Stopped by Police Soars.”
103
Ryan Pintado-Vertner and Jeff Chang. “The War on Youth,”
Colorlines
2, no. 4 (Winter 1999-2000), 36.
Ryan Pintado-Vertner and Jeff Chang. “The War on Youth,”
Colorlines
2, no. 4 (Winter 1999-2000), 36.
104
Alexander v. Sandoval
, 532 U.S. 275 (2001).
Chapter 4: The Cruel HandAlexander v. Sandoval
, 532 U.S. 275 (2001).
1
Proceedings of the Colored National Convention, held in Rochester, July 6-8, 1853 (Rochester: Printed at the office of
Frederick Douglass’s Papers
, 1853), 16.
Proceedings of the Colored National Convention, held in Rochester, July 6-8, 1853 (Rochester: Printed at the office of
Frederick Douglass’s Papers
, 1853), 16.
2
Approximately 30 percent of African American men are banned for life from jury service because they are felons. See Brian Kalt, “The Exclusion of Felons from Jury Service,”
American University Law Review
53 (2003): 65.
Approximately 30 percent of African American men are banned for life from jury service because they are felons. See Brian Kalt, “The Exclusion of Felons from Jury Service,”
American University Law Review
53 (2003): 65.
3
Jeremy Travis,
But They All Come Back: Facing the Challenges of Prisoner Reentry
(Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 2002), 73.
Jeremy Travis,
But They All Come Back: Facing the Challenges of Prisoner Reentry
(Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 2002), 73.
4
Webb Hubbell, “The Mark of Cain,”
San Francisco Chronicle
, June 10, 2001; Nora Demleitner, “Preventing Internal Exile: The Need for Restrictions on Collateral Sentencing and Consequences,”
Stanford Law and Policy Review
11, no. 1 (1999): 153-63.
Webb Hubbell, “The Mark of Cain,”
San Francisco Chronicle
, June 10, 2001; Nora Demleitner, “Preventing Internal Exile: The Need for Restrictions on Collateral Sentencing and Consequences,”
Stanford Law and Policy Review
11, no. 1 (1999): 153-63.
5
Marc Mauer and Meda Chesney-Lind, eds.,
Invisible Punishment: The Collateral Consequences of Mass Imprisonment
(New York: The New Press, 2002), 5, citing American Bar Association, Task Force on Collateral Sanctions,
Introduction, Proposed Standards on Collateral Sanctions and Administrative Disqualification of Convicted Persons
, draft, Jan. 18, 2002.
Marc Mauer and Meda Chesney-Lind, eds.,
Invisible Punishment: The Collateral Consequences of Mass Imprisonment
(New York: The New Press, 2002), 5, citing American Bar Association, Task Force on Collateral Sanctions,
Introduction, Proposed Standards on Collateral Sanctions and Administrative Disqualification of Convicted Persons
, draft, Jan. 18, 2002.
6
Frederick Douglass, “What Negroes Want,” in
The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass
, vol. 4, ed. Philip S. Foner (New York: International, 1955), 159-60.
Frederick Douglass, “What Negroes Want,” in
The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass
, vol. 4, ed. Philip S. Foner (New York: International, 1955), 159-60.
7
Jeff Manza and Christopher Uggen,
Locked Out: Felon Disenfranchisement and American Democracy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 152.
Jeff Manza and Christopher Uggen,
Locked Out: Felon Disenfranchisement and American Democracy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 152.
8
Human Rights Watch,
No Second Chance: People with Criminal Records Denied Access to Housing
(New York: Human Rights Watch, 2006), ix.
Human Rights Watch,
No Second Chance: People with Criminal Records Denied Access to Housing
(New York: Human Rights Watch, 2006), ix.
9
President Bill Clinton, “Remarks by the President at One Strike Symposium,” White House, Office of the Press Secretary, Mar. 28, 1996,
http://clinton6.nara.gov/1996/03/1996-03-28-president-remarks-at-one-strike-symposium.html
.
President Bill Clinton, “Remarks by the President at One Strike Symposium,” White House, Office of the Press Secretary, Mar. 28, 1996,
http://clinton6.nara.gov/1996/03/1996-03-28-president-remarks-at-one-strike-symposium.html
.
10
Memorandum from President Clinton to HUD Secretary on “One Strike and You’re Out” Guidelines, Mar. 28, 1996,
http://clinton6.nara.gov/1996/03/1996-03-28-memo-on-one-strike-and-you’re-out-guidelines.html
; and President Bill Clinton, “Remarks by the President at One Strike Symposium.”
Memorandum from President Clinton to HUD Secretary on “One Strike and You’re Out” Guidelines, Mar. 28, 1996,
http://clinton6.nara.gov/1996/03/1996-03-28-memo-on-one-strike-and-you’re-out-guidelines.html
; and President Bill Clinton, “Remarks by the President at One Strike Symposium.”
11
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, notice PIH 96-16 (HA), Apr. 29, 1996, and attached “one strike” guidelines, HUD, “‘One Strike and You’re Out’ Screening and Eviction Guidelines for Public Housing Authorities,” Apr. 12, 1996.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, notice PIH 96-16 (HA), Apr. 29, 1996, and attached “one strike” guidelines, HUD, “‘One Strike and You’re Out’ Screening and Eviction Guidelines for Public Housing Authorities,” Apr. 12, 1996.
12
Human Rights Watch,
No Second Chance
.
Human Rights Watch,
No Second Chance
.
13
Ibid., vi.
Ibid., vi.
14
Rucker v. Davis
, 237 F.3d 1113 (9th Cir. 2001).
Rucker v. Davis
, 237 F.3d 1113 (9th Cir. 2001).
15
Department of Housing and Urban Development v. Rucker
, 535 U.S. 125 (2002).
Department of Housing and Urban Development v. Rucker
, 535 U.S. 125 (2002).
16
Human Rights Watch,
No Second Chance,
i.
Human Rights Watch,
No Second Chance,
i.
17
Martha Nelson, Perry Dees, and Charlotte Allen,
The First Month Out: Post-Incarceration Experiences in New York City
(New York: Vera Institute of Justice, 1999).
Martha Nelson, Perry Dees, and Charlotte Allen,
The First Month Out: Post-Incarceration Experiences in New York City
(New York: Vera Institute of Justice, 1999).
18
Edward Rhine, William Smith, and Ronald Jackson,
Paroling Authorities: Recent History and Current Practice
(Laurel, MD: American Correctional Association, 1991).
Edward Rhine, William Smith, and Ronald Jackson,
Paroling Authorities: Recent History and Current Practice
(Laurel, MD: American Correctional Association, 1991).
19
Gene Johnson, “‘Ban the Box’ Movement Gains Steam,”
Wave Newspapers
, New America Media, Aug. 15, 2006.
Gene Johnson, “‘Ban the Box’ Movement Gains Steam,”
Wave Newspapers
, New America Media, Aug. 15, 2006.
20
Legal Action Center,
After Prison: Roadblocks to Reentry, a Report on State Legal Barriers Facing People with Criminal Records
(New York: Legal Action Center, 2004), 10.
Legal Action Center,
After Prison: Roadblocks to Reentry, a Report on State Legal Barriers Facing People with Criminal Records
(New York: Legal Action Center, 2004), 10.
21
Ibid.
Ibid.
22
Harry Holzer, Steven Raphael, and Michael Stoll, “Will Employers Hire Ex-Offenders? Employer Preferences, Background Checks and Their Determinants,” in
The Impact of Incarceration on Families and Communities
, ed. Mary Pattillo, David Weiman, and Bruce Western (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002).
Harry Holzer, Steven Raphael, and Michael Stoll, “Will Employers Hire Ex-Offenders? Employer Preferences, Background Checks and Their Determinants,” in
The Impact of Incarceration on Families and Communities
, ed. Mary Pattillo, David Weiman, and Bruce Western (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002).
23
Employers Group Research Services, “Employment of Ex-Offenders: A Survey of Employers’ Policies and Practices,” San Francisco: SF Works, Apr. 12, 2002.
Employers Group Research Services, “Employment of Ex-Offenders: A Survey of Employers’ Policies and Practices,” San Francisco: SF Works, Apr. 12, 2002.
24
Jeremy Travis, Amy Solomon, and Michelle Waul,
From Prison to Home: The Dimensions and Consequences of Prisoner Reentry
(Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 2001); and Amy Hirsch et al.,
Every Door Closed: Barriers Facing Parents with Criminal Records
(Washington, DC: Center for Law and Social Policy and Community Legal Services, 2002).
Jeremy Travis, Amy Solomon, and Michelle Waul,
From Prison to Home: The Dimensions and Consequences of Prisoner Reentry
(Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 2001); and Amy Hirsch et al.,
Every Door Closed: Barriers Facing Parents with Criminal Records
(Washington, DC: Center for Law and Social Policy and Community Legal Services, 2002).
25
Keith Ihlanfeldt and David Sjoquist, “The Spatial Mismatch Hypothesis: A Review of Recent Studies and Their Implications for Welfare Reform,”
Housing Policy Debate
9, no. 4 (1998): 849; and Michael Stoll, Harry Holzer, and Keith Ihlanfeldt, “Within Cities and Suburbs: Employment Decentralization, Neighborhood Composition, and Employment Opportunities for White and Minority Workers,”
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management
, Spring 2000.
Keith Ihlanfeldt and David Sjoquist, “The Spatial Mismatch Hypothesis: A Review of Recent Studies and Their Implications for Welfare Reform,”
Housing Policy Debate
9, no. 4 (1998): 849; and Michael Stoll, Harry Holzer, and Keith Ihlanfeldt, “Within Cities and Suburbs: Employment Decentralization, Neighborhood Composition, and Employment Opportunities for White and Minority Workers,”
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management
, Spring 2000.
26
Harry Holzer et al., “Employer Demand for Ex-Offenders: Recent Evidence from Los Angeles,” March 2003, unpublished manuscript.
Harry Holzer et al., “Employer Demand for Ex-Offenders: Recent Evidence from Los Angeles,” March 2003, unpublished manuscript.
27
Wilson,
When Work Disappears
, 40.
Wilson,
When Work Disappears
, 40.
28
Andrew Jacobs, “Crime-Ridden Newark Tries Getting Jobs for Ex-Convicts, but finds Success Elusive,”
New York Times
, Apr. 27, 2008.
Andrew Jacobs, “Crime-Ridden Newark Tries Getting Jobs for Ex-Convicts, but finds Success Elusive,”
New York Times
, Apr. 27, 2008.
29
Wilson,
When Work Disappears
, 41.
Wilson,
When Work Disappears
, 41.
30
Harry Holzer and Robert LaLonde, “Job Stability and Job Change Among Young Unskilled Workers,” in
Finding Jobs: Work and Welfare Reform
, ed. David Card and Rebecca Blank (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000); see also Joleen Kirshenman and Kathryn Neckerman, “We’d Love to Hire Them But . . .” in
The Urban Underclass
, ed. Christopher Jencks and Paul Peterson (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1991).
Harry Holzer and Robert LaLonde, “Job Stability and Job Change Among Young Unskilled Workers,” in
Finding Jobs: Work and Welfare Reform
, ed. David Card and Rebecca Blank (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000); see also Joleen Kirshenman and Kathryn Neckerman, “We’d Love to Hire Them But . . .” in
The Urban Underclass
, ed. Christopher Jencks and Paul Peterson (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1991).
31
Ibid., 942.
Ibid., 942.
32
Ibid., 962.
Ibid., 962.
33
Bruce Western,
Punishment and Inequality in America
(New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006), 90.
Bruce Western,
Punishment and Inequality in America
(New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006), 90.
34
Ibid., 91.
Ibid., 91.
35
See Devah Pager,
Marked: Race, Crime and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration
(University of Chicago Press, 2007), 157; Steven Raphael, “Should Criminal History Records Be Universally Available?” (reaction essay) in Greg Pogarsky, “Criminal Records, Employment and Recidivism,”
Criminology & Public Policy
5, no. 3 (Aug. 2006): 479-521; and Shawn Bushway, “Labor Market Effects of Permitting Employer Access to Criminal History Records,”
Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice
20 (2004): 276-91.
See Devah Pager,
Marked: Race, Crime and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration
(University of Chicago Press, 2007), 157; Steven Raphael, “Should Criminal History Records Be Universally Available?” (reaction essay) in Greg Pogarsky, “Criminal Records, Employment and Recidivism,”
Criminology & Public Policy
5, no. 3 (Aug. 2006): 479-521; and Shawn Bushway, “Labor Market Effects of Permitting Employer Access to Criminal History Records,”
Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice
20 (2004): 276-91.
36
Kirsten Livingston, “Making the Bad Guy Pay: Growing Use of Cost Shifting as Economic Sanction,” in
Prison Profiteers: Who Makes Money from Mass Incarceration
, ed. Tara Herivel and Paul Wright (New York: The New Press, 2007), 61.
Kirsten Livingston, “Making the Bad Guy Pay: Growing Use of Cost Shifting as Economic Sanction,” in
Prison Profiteers: Who Makes Money from Mass Incarceration
, ed. Tara Herivel and Paul Wright (New York: The New Press, 2007), 61.
37
Ibid., 69, citing Ohio Rev. Code Ann. Sec. 2951.021 and Ohio Rev. Code Sec. 2951.021.
Ibid., 69, citing Ohio Rev. Code Ann. Sec. 2951.021 and Ohio Rev. Code Sec. 2951.021.
38
Bureau of Justice Assistance,
Repaying Debts
(Council of State Governments Justice Center, 2007).
Bureau of Justice Assistance,
Repaying Debts
(Council of State Governments Justice Center, 2007).
39
“Out of Prison and Deep in Debt,”
New York Times
editorial, Oct. 6, 2007.
“Out of Prison and Deep in Debt,”
New York Times
editorial, Oct. 6, 2007.
40
Livingston, “Making the Bad Guy Pay,” 55.
Livingston, “Making the Bad Guy Pay,” 55.
41
Ibid.
Ibid.
42
Ryan S. King,
Felony Disenfranchisement Laws in the United States
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, Sept. 2008).
Ryan S. King,
Felony Disenfranchisement Laws in the United States
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, Sept. 2008).
43
American Civil Liberties Union,
Out of Step with the World: An Analysis of Felony Disenfranchisement in the U.S. and Other Democracies
(New York, May 2006), 4.
American Civil Liberties Union,
Out of Step with the World: An Analysis of Felony Disenfranchisement in the U.S. and Other Democracies
(New York, May 2006), 4.
44
Ibid.
Ibid.
45
Ibid., 6.
Ibid., 6.
46
See Laleh Ispahani and Nick Williams,
Purged!
(New York: American Civil Liberties Union, Oct. 2004); and Alec Ewald,
A Crazy Quilt of Tiny Pieces: State and Local Administration of American Criminal Disenfranchisement Law
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, Nov. 2005).
See Laleh Ispahani and Nick Williams,
Purged!
(New York: American Civil Liberties Union, Oct. 2004); and Alec Ewald,
A Crazy Quilt of Tiny Pieces: State and Local Administration of American Criminal Disenfranchisement Law
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, Nov. 2005).
47
Sasha Abramsky,
Conned: How Millions Went to Prison, Lost the Vote, and Helped Send George W. Bush to the White House
(New York: The New Press, 2006), 224.
Sasha Abramsky,
Conned: How Millions Went to Prison, Lost the Vote, and Helped Send George W. Bush to the White House
(New York: The New Press, 2006), 224.
48
Ibid.
Ibid.
49
Gail Russell Chaddock, “U.S. Notches World’s Highest Incarceration Rate,”
Christian Science Monitor
, Aug. 18, 2003.
Gail Russell Chaddock, “U.S. Notches World’s Highest Incarceration Rate,”
Christian Science Monitor
, Aug. 18, 2003.
50
Abramsky,
Conned
, 207.
Abramsky,
Conned
, 207.
51
Ibid., 207-8.
Ibid., 207-8.
52
Ibid.
Ibid.
53
Christopher Uggen and Jeff Manza, “Democratic Contraction? Political Consequences of Felon Disenfranchisement in the United States,”
American Sociological Review
67 (2002): 777.
Christopher Uggen and Jeff Manza, “Democratic Contraction? Political Consequences of Felon Disenfranchisement in the United States,”
American Sociological Review
67 (2002): 777.
54
Manza and Uggen,
Locked Out
, 137.
Manza and Uggen,
Locked Out
, 137.
55
Abramsky,
Conned
, 206-7.
Abramsky,
Conned
, 206-7.
56
See Kathryn Russell-Brown,
The Color of Crime: Racial Hoaxes, White Fear, Black Protectionism, Police Harassment, and Other Macroaggressions
(New York: New York University Press, 1998), coining the term
criminalblackman
.
See Kathryn Russell-Brown,
The Color of Crime: Racial Hoaxes, White Fear, Black Protectionism, Police Harassment, and Other Macroaggressions
(New York: New York University Press, 1998), coining the term
criminalblackman
.
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