The New Jim Crow (45 page)
Authors: Michelle Alexander
50
Willard M. Oliver,
The Law & Order Presidency
(Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003), 127-28, citing Dan Baum,
Smoke and Mirrors: The War on Drugs and the Politics of Failure
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1996), 13.
Willard M. Oliver,
The Law & Order Presidency
(Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003), 127-28, citing Dan Baum,
Smoke and Mirrors: The War on Drugs and the Politics of Failure
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1996), 13.
51
John Ehrlichman,
Witness to Power: The Nixon Years
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1970), 233.
John Ehrlichman,
Witness to Power: The Nixon Years
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1970), 233.
52
Ibid.
Ibid.
53
See Kevin Phillips,
The Emerging Republican Majority
(New Rochelle, NY: Arlington House, 1969).
See Kevin Phillips,
The Emerging Republican Majority
(New Rochelle, NY: Arlington House, 1969).
54
Warren Weaver, “The Emerging Republican Majority,”
New York Times,
Sept. 21, 1969.
Warren Weaver, “The Emerging Republican Majority,”
New York Times,
Sept. 21, 1969.
55
Beckett,
Making Crime Pay
, 34.
Beckett,
Making Crime Pay
, 34.
56
Lyndon Johnson, “Remarks on the City Hall Steps, Dayton, Ohio,” in
Public Papers of the Presidents 1963-64
, vol. 2 (1965), 1371.
Lyndon Johnson, “Remarks on the City Hall Steps, Dayton, Ohio,” in
Public Papers of the Presidents 1963-64
, vol. 2 (1965), 1371.
57
Thomas Byrne Edsall and Mary D. Edsall,
Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics
(New York: Norton, 1992), 12-13.
Thomas Byrne Edsall and Mary D. Edsall,
Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics
(New York: Norton, 1992), 12-13.
58
Ibid., 38.
Ibid., 38.
59
Ibid., 74.
Ibid., 74.
60
Weaver, “Frontlash,” 259.
Weaver, “Frontlash,” 259.
61
See Philip A. Klinker and Rogers M. Smith,
The Unsteady March: The Rise and Decline of Racial Equality in America
(University of Chicago Press, 1999), 292.
See Philip A. Klinker and Rogers M. Smith,
The Unsteady March: The Rise and Decline of Racial Equality in America
(University of Chicago Press, 1999), 292.
62
Edsall and Edsall,
Chain Reaction
, 4.
Edsall and Edsall,
Chain Reaction
, 4.
63
Ibid., 138; see also Jeremy Mayer,
Running on Race
(New York: Random House, 2002), 71.
Ibid., 138; see also Jeremy Mayer,
Running on Race
(New York: Random House, 2002), 71.
64
Ibid.
Ibid.
65
Bob Herbert, “Righting Reagan’s Wrongs?”
New York Times
, Nov. 13, 2007; see also Paul Krugman, “Republicans and Race,”
New York Times
, Nov. 19, 2007.
Bob Herbert, “Righting Reagan’s Wrongs?”
New York Times
, Nov. 13, 2007; see also Paul Krugman, “Republicans and Race,”
New York Times
, Nov. 19, 2007.
66
Edsall and Edsall,
Chain Reaction
, 148, quoting
New York Times
, Feb. 15, 1976.
Edsall and Edsall,
Chain Reaction
, 148, quoting
New York Times
, Feb. 15, 1976.
67
Ibid., quoting
Washington Post
, Jan. 28, 1976.
Ibid., quoting
Washington Post
, Jan. 28, 1976.
68
Dick Kirschten, “Jungle Warfare,”
National Journal
, Oct. 3, 1981.
Dick Kirschten, “Jungle Warfare,”
National Journal
, Oct. 3, 1981.
69
Edsall and Edsall,
Chain Reaction
, 164.
Edsall and Edsall,
Chain Reaction
, 164.
70
Beckett,
Making Crime Pay
, 47.
Beckett,
Making Crime Pay
, 47.
71
Ibid., 56; see also Julian Roberts, “Public Opinion, Crime and Criminal Justice,” in
Crime and Justice: A Review of Research
, vol. 16, ed. Michael Tonry (University of Chicago Press, 1992).
Ibid., 56; see also Julian Roberts, “Public Opinion, Crime and Criminal Justice,” in
Crime and Justice: A Review of Research
, vol. 16, ed. Michael Tonry (University of Chicago Press, 1992).
72
Beckett,
Making Crime Pay
, 53, citing Executive Office of the President, Budget of the U.S. Government (1990).
Beckett,
Making Crime Pay
, 53, citing Executive Office of the President, Budget of the U.S. Government (1990).
73
Ibid., citing U.S. Office of the National Drug Control Policy, National Drug Control Strategy (1992).
Ibid., citing U.S. Office of the National Drug Control Policy, National Drug Control Strategy (1992).
74
Ibid.
Ibid.
75
Ibid., 56.
Ibid., 56.
76
See William Julius Wilson,
When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor
(New York: Vintage, 1997).
See William Julius Wilson,
When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor
(New York: Vintage, 1997).
77
Ibid., 31 (citing John Kasarda, “Urban Industrial Transition and the Underclass,”
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
501, no. 1 (1990): 26-47.
Ibid., 31 (citing John Kasarda, “Urban Industrial Transition and the Underclass,”
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
501, no. 1 (1990): 26-47.
78
Ibid., 30 (citing data from the Chicago Urban Poverty and Family Life Survey conducted in 1987 and 1988).
Ibid., 30 (citing data from the Chicago Urban Poverty and Family Life Survey conducted in 1987 and 1988).
79
Ibid., 39.
Ibid., 39.
80
Ibid., 27.
Ibid., 27.
81
Robert Stutman,
Dead on Delivery: Inside the Drug Wars, Straight from the Street
(New York: Warner Books, 1992), 142.
Robert Stutman,
Dead on Delivery: Inside the Drug Wars, Straight from the Street
(New York: Warner Books, 1992), 142.
82
See Craig Reinarman and Harry Levine, “The Crack Attack: America’s Latest Drug Scare, 1986-1992,” in
Images of Issues: Typifying Contemporary Social Problems
(New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 1995).
See Craig Reinarman and Harry Levine, “The Crack Attack: America’s Latest Drug Scare, 1986-1992,” in
Images of Issues: Typifying Contemporary Social Problems
(New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 1995).
83
Ibid., 154.
Ibid., 154.
84
Ibid., 170-71.
Ibid., 170-71.
85
Doris Marie Provine,
Unequal Under Law: Race in the War on Drugs
(University of Chicago Press, 2007), 111, citing
Congressional Record
132 (Sept. 24, 1986): S 13741.
Doris Marie Provine,
Unequal Under Law: Race in the War on Drugs
(University of Chicago Press, 2007), 111, citing
Congressional Record
132 (Sept. 24, 1986): S 13741.
86
Provine,
Unequal Under Law,
117.
Provine,
Unequal Under Law,
117.
87
Mark Peffley, Jon Hurwitz, and Paul Sniderman, “Racial Stereotypes and Whites’ Political Views of Blacks in the Context of Welfare and Crime,”
American Journal of Political Science
41, no. 1 (1997): 30-60; Martin Gilens, “Racial Attitudes and Opposition to Welfare,”
Journal of Politics
57, no. 4 (1995): 994-1014; Kathlyn Taylor Gaubatz,
Crime in the Public Mind
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995); and John Hurwitz and Mark Peffley, “Public Perceptions of Race and Crime: The Role of Racial Stereotypes,”
American Journal of Political Science
41, no. 2 (1997): 375-401.
Mark Peffley, Jon Hurwitz, and Paul Sniderman, “Racial Stereotypes and Whites’ Political Views of Blacks in the Context of Welfare and Crime,”
American Journal of Political Science
41, no. 1 (1997): 30-60; Martin Gilens, “Racial Attitudes and Opposition to Welfare,”
Journal of Politics
57, no. 4 (1995): 994-1014; Kathlyn Taylor Gaubatz,
Crime in the Public Mind
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995); and John Hurwitz and Mark Peffley, “Public Perceptions of Race and Crime: The Role of Racial Stereotypes,”
American Journal of Political Science
41, no. 2 (1997): 375-401.
88
See Frank Furstenberg, “Public Reaction to Crime in the Streets,”
American Scholar
40 (1971): 601-10; Arthur Stinchcombe, et al.,
Crime and Punishment in America: Changing Attitudes in America
(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1980); Michael Corbett, “Public Support for Law and Order: Interrelationships with System Affirmation and Attitudes Toward Minorities,”
Criminology
19 (1981): 337.
See Frank Furstenberg, “Public Reaction to Crime in the Streets,”
American Scholar
40 (1971): 601-10; Arthur Stinchcombe, et al.,
Crime and Punishment in America: Changing Attitudes in America
(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1980); Michael Corbett, “Public Support for Law and Order: Interrelationships with System Affirmation and Attitudes Toward Minorities,”
Criminology
19 (1981): 337.
89
Stephen Earl Bennett and Alfred J. Tuchfarber, “The Social Structural Sources of Cleavage on Law and Order Policies,”
American Journal of Political Science
19 (1975): 419-38; Sandra Browning and Liqun Cao, “The Impact of Race on Criminal Justice Ideology,”
Justice Quarterly
9 (Dec. 1992): 685-99; and Steven F. Cohn, Steven E. Barkan, and William A. Halteman, “Punitive Attitudes Toward Criminals: Racial Consensus or Racial Conflict?”
Social Problems
38 (1991): 287-96.
Stephen Earl Bennett and Alfred J. Tuchfarber, “The Social Structural Sources of Cleavage on Law and Order Policies,”
American Journal of Political Science
19 (1975): 419-38; Sandra Browning and Liqun Cao, “The Impact of Race on Criminal Justice Ideology,”
Justice Quarterly
9 (Dec. 1992): 685-99; and Steven F. Cohn, Steven E. Barkan, and William A. Halteman, “Punitive Attitudes Toward Criminals: Racial Consensus or Racial Conflict?”
Social Problems
38 (1991): 287-96.
90
Beckett,
Making Crime Pay
, 44.
Beckett,
Making Crime Pay
, 44.
91
Ibid., citing New York Times/CBS News Poll, Aug. 1990, 2-4).
Ibid., citing New York Times/CBS News Poll, Aug. 1990, 2-4).
92
See Beckett,
Making Crime Pay
, 14-27.
See Beckett,
Making Crime Pay
, 14-27.
93
“Ku Klux Klan Says It Will Fight Drugs,”
Toledo Journal
, Jan. 3-9, 1990.
“Ku Klux Klan Says It Will Fight Drugs,”
Toledo Journal
, Jan. 3-9, 1990.
94
Michael Kramer, “Frying Them Isn’t the Answer,”
Time
, Mar. 14, 1994, 32.
Michael Kramer, “Frying Them Isn’t the Answer,”
Time
, Mar. 14, 1994, 32.
95
David Masci, “$30 Billion Anti-Crime Bill Heads to Clinton’s Desk,”
Congressional Quarterly
, Aug. 27, 1994, 2488-93; and Beckett,
Making Crime Pay
, 61.
David Masci, “$30 Billion Anti-Crime Bill Heads to Clinton’s Desk,”
Congressional Quarterly
, Aug. 27, 1994, 2488-93; and Beckett,
Making Crime Pay
, 61.
96
Justice Policy Institute, “Clinton Crime Agenda Ignores Proven Methods for Reducing Crime,” Apr. 14, 2008, available online at
www.justicepolicy.org/content-hmID=1817&smID=1571&ssmID=71.htm
.
Justice Policy Institute, “Clinton Crime Agenda Ignores Proven Methods for Reducing Crime,” Apr. 14, 2008, available online at
www.justicepolicy.org/content-hmID=1817&smID=1571&ssmID=71.htm
.
97
Address Before a Joint Session of Congress on the State of the Union, Jan. 23, 1996.
Address Before a Joint Session of Congress on the State of the Union, Jan. 23, 1996.
98
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development,
Meeting the Challenge: Public Housing Authorities Respond to the ‘One Strike and You’re Out’Initiative
, Sept. 1997, v.
Chapter 2: The LockdownU.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development,
Meeting the Challenge: Public Housing Authorities Respond to the ‘One Strike and You’re Out’Initiative
, Sept. 1997, v.
1
See Marc Mauer,
Race to Incarcerate
, rev. ed. (New York: The New Press, 2006), 33.
See Marc Mauer,
Race to Incarcerate
, rev. ed. (New York: The New Press, 2006), 33.
2
Marc Mauer and Ryan King,
A 25-Year Quagmire: The “War on Drugs” and Its Impact on American Society
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, 2007), 2.
Marc Mauer and Ryan King,
A 25-Year Quagmire: The “War on Drugs” and Its Impact on American Society
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, 2007), 2.
3
Ibid., 3.
Ibid., 3.
4
Ibid., 2-3.
Ibid., 2-3.
5
Ibid.; and Ryan King and Marc Mauer,
The War on Marijuana: The Transformation of the War on Drugs in the 1990s
(New York: Sentencing Project, 2005), documenting the dramatic increase in marijuana arrests. Marijuana is a relatively harmless drug. The 1988 surgeon general’s report lists tobacco as a more dangerous drug than marijuana, and Francis Young, an administrative law judge for the Drug Enforcement Administration found there are no credible medical reports to suggest that consuming marijuana, in any dose, has ever caused a single death. U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, Opinion and Recommended Ruling, Findings of Fact, Conclusions of Law and Decision of Administrative Law Judge Francis L. Young, in the
Matter of Marijuana Rescheduling Petition
, Docket no. 86-22, Sept. 6, 1988, 56-57. By comparison, tobacco kills roughly 390,000 Americns annually, and alcohol is responsible for some 150,000 U.S. deaths a year. See Doug Bandow, “War on Drugs or War on America?”
Stanford Law and Policy Review
3: 242, 245 (1991).
Ibid.; and Ryan King and Marc Mauer,
The War on Marijuana: The Transformation of the War on Drugs in the 1990s
(New York: Sentencing Project, 2005), documenting the dramatic increase in marijuana arrests. Marijuana is a relatively harmless drug. The 1988 surgeon general’s report lists tobacco as a more dangerous drug than marijuana, and Francis Young, an administrative law judge for the Drug Enforcement Administration found there are no credible medical reports to suggest that consuming marijuana, in any dose, has ever caused a single death. U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, Opinion and Recommended Ruling, Findings of Fact, Conclusions of Law and Decision of Administrative Law Judge Francis L. Young, in the
Matter of Marijuana Rescheduling Petition
, Docket no. 86-22, Sept. 6, 1988, 56-57. By comparison, tobacco kills roughly 390,000 Americns annually, and alcohol is responsible for some 150,000 U.S. deaths a year. See Doug Bandow, “War on Drugs or War on America?”
Stanford Law and Policy Review
3: 242, 245 (1991).
6
Pew Center on the States,
One in 31: The Long Reach of American Corrections
(Washington, DC: Pew Charitable Trusts, Mar. 2009).
Pew Center on the States,
One in 31: The Long Reach of American Corrections
(Washington, DC: Pew Charitable Trusts, Mar. 2009).
7
Skinner v. Railway Labor Executive Association
, 489 U.S. 602, 641 (1980), Marshall, J., dissenting.
Skinner v. Railway Labor Executive Association
, 489 U.S. 602, 641 (1980), Marshall, J., dissenting.
8
California v. Acevedo
, 500 U.S. 565, 600 (1991), Stevens. J., dissenting.
California v. Acevedo
, 500 U.S. 565, 600 (1991), Stevens. J., dissenting.
9
Terry v. Ohio
, 392 U.S. 1, 30 (1968).
Terry v. Ohio
, 392 U.S. 1, 30 (1968).
10
Ibid., Douglas J., dissenting.
Ibid., Douglas J., dissenting.
11
See generally
United States v. Lewis
, 921 F.2d 1294, 1296 (1990);
United States v. Flowers
, 912 F.2d 707, 708 (4th Cir. 1990); and
Florida v. Bostick
, 501 U.S. 429, 441 (1991).
See generally
United States v. Lewis
, 921 F.2d 1294, 1296 (1990);
United States v. Flowers
, 912 F.2d 707, 708 (4th Cir. 1990); and
Florida v. Bostick
, 501 U.S. 429, 441 (1991).
12
See, e.g.,
Florida v. Kerwick
, 512 So.2d 347, 349 (Fla. App. 4 Dist. 1987).
See, e.g.,
Florida v. Kerwick
, 512 So.2d 347, 349 (Fla. App. 4 Dist. 1987).
13
See
United States v. Flowers
, 912 F.2d 707, 710 (4th Cir. 1990).
See
United States v. Flowers
, 912 F.2d 707, 710 (4th Cir. 1990).
14
Bostick v. State
, 554 So. 2d 1153, 1158 (Fla. 1989), quoting
State v. Kerwick
, 512 So.2d 347, 348-49 (Fla. 4th DCA 1987).
Bostick v. State
, 554 So. 2d 1153, 1158 (Fla. 1989), quoting
State v. Kerwick
, 512 So.2d 347, 348-49 (Fla. 4th DCA 1987).
15
In re J.M
., 619 A.2d 497, 501 (D.C. App. 1992).
In re J.M
., 619 A.2d 497, 501 (D.C. App. 1992).
16
Illinois Migrant Council v. Pilliod
, 398 F. Supp. 882, 899 (N.D. Ill. 1975).
Illinois Migrant Council v. Pilliod
, 398 F. Supp. 882, 899 (N.D. Ill. 1975).
17
Tracy Maclin, “Black and Blue Encounters—Some Preliminary Thoughts About Fourth Amendment Seizures: Should Race Matter?”
Valparaiso University Law Review
26 (1991): 249-50.
Tracy Maclin, “Black and Blue Encounters—Some Preliminary Thoughts About Fourth Amendment Seizures: Should Race Matter?”
Valparaiso University Law Review
26 (1991): 249-50.
18
Florida v. Bostick
, 501 U.S. 429, 441 n. 1 (1991), Marshall, J., dissenting.
Florida v. Bostick
, 501 U.S. 429, 441 n. 1 (1991), Marshall, J., dissenting.
19
Maclin, “Black and Blue Encounters.”
Maclin, “Black and Blue Encounters.”
20
Schneckloth v. Bustamonte
, 412 U.S. 218, 229 (1973).
Schneckloth v. Bustamonte
, 412 U.S. 218, 229 (1973).
21
See
Illinois v. Caballes
, 543 U.S. 405 (2005) and
United States v. Place
, 462 U.S. 696 (1983).
See
Illinois v. Caballes
, 543 U.S. 405 (2005) and
United States v. Place
, 462 U.S. 696 (1983).
22
See U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration,
Operations Pipeline and Convoy
(Washington, DC, n.d.),
www.usdoj.gov/dea/programs/pipecon.htm
.
See U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration,
Operations Pipeline and Convoy
(Washington, DC, n.d.),
www.usdoj.gov/dea/programs/pipecon.htm
.
23
Ricardo J. Bascuas, “Fourth Amendment Lessons from the Highway and the Subway: A Principled Approach to Suspicionless Searches,”
Rutgers Law Journal
38 (2007): 719, 763.
Ricardo J. Bascuas, “Fourth Amendment Lessons from the Highway and the Subway: A Principled Approach to Suspicionless Searches,”
Rutgers Law Journal
38 (2007): 719, 763.
24
State v. Rutherford
, 93 Ohio App.3d 586, 593-95, 639 N.E. 2d 498, 503-4, n. 3 (Ohio Ct. App. 1994).
State v. Rutherford
, 93 Ohio App.3d 586, 593-95, 639 N.E. 2d 498, 503-4, n. 3 (Ohio Ct. App. 1994).
25
Gary Webb, “Driving While Black,”
Esquire
, Apr. 1, 1999, 122.
Gary Webb, “Driving While Black,”
Esquire
, Apr. 1, 1999, 122.
26
Ibid.
Ibid.
27
Scott Henson,
Flawed Enforcement: Why Drug Task Force Highway Interdiction Violates Rights, Wastes Tax Dollars, and Fails to Limit the Availability of Drugs in Texas
(Austin: American Civil Liberties Union—Texas Chapter, May 2004), 9,
www.aclu.org/racialjustice/racialprofiling/15897pub20040519.html
.
Scott Henson,
Flawed Enforcement: Why Drug Task Force Highway Interdiction Violates Rights, Wastes Tax Dollars, and Fails to Limit the Availability of Drugs in Texas
(Austin: American Civil Liberties Union—Texas Chapter, May 2004), 9,
www.aclu.org/racialjustice/racialprofiling/15897pub20040519.html
.
28
David Cole,
No Equal Justice: Race and Class in the American Criminal Justice System
(New York: The New Press, 1999), 47.
David Cole,
No Equal Justice: Race and Class in the American Criminal Justice System
(New York: The New Press, 1999), 47.
29
Florida Department of Highway Safety and Motor Vehicles, Office of General Counsel,
Common Characteristics of Drug Couriers
(1984), sec. I.A.4.
Florida Department of Highway Safety and Motor Vehicles, Office of General Counsel,
Common Characteristics of Drug Couriers
(1984), sec. I.A.4.
30
Cole,
No Equal Justice
, 49.
Cole,
No Equal Justice
, 49.
31
“Fluid Drug Courier Profiles See Everyone As Suspicious,”
Criminal Practice Manual
5 (Bureau of National Affairs: July 10, 1991): 334-35.
“Fluid Drug Courier Profiles See Everyone As Suspicious,”
Criminal Practice Manual
5 (Bureau of National Affairs: July 10, 1991): 334-35.
32
Mauer and King,
25-Year Quagmire
, 3.
Mauer and King,
25-Year Quagmire
, 3.
33
Katherine Beckett,
Making Crime Pay: Law and Order in Contemporary American Politics
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 45; and Mauer,
Race to Incarcerate,
49.
Katherine Beckett,
Making Crime Pay: Law and Order in Contemporary American Politics
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 45; and Mauer,
Race to Incarcerate,
49.
34
U.S. Department of Justice,
Department of Justice Drug Demand Reduction Activities, Report No. 3-12
(Washington, DC: Office of the Inspector General, Feb. 2003), 35,
www.usdoj.gov/oig/reports/plus/a0312
.
U.S. Department of Justice,
Department of Justice Drug Demand Reduction Activities, Report No. 3-12
(Washington, DC: Office of the Inspector General, Feb. 2003), 35,
www.usdoj.gov/oig/reports/plus/a0312
.
35
Radley Balko,
Overkill: The Rise of Paramilitary Police Raids in America
(Washington, DC: Cato Institute, July 17, 2006), 8.
Radley Balko,
Overkill: The Rise of Paramilitary Police Raids in America
(Washington, DC: Cato Institute, July 17, 2006), 8.
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