The New Penguin History of the World (233 page)

agricultural wage-labour,
514
,
554
,
706

demographic influences,
518

European craftsmen,
560

children exploited,
716

unemployment,
866
,
913

women and,
870
,
894

assembly-line use,
1007

see also
serfdom; slavery; trades unionism

Laika,
1018

Langland, Willam (
c.
1332–
c.
1440), English writer,
505

language

development,
15
,
16
–17

Doric dialect,
101

Sanskrit,
129
,
430
,
852

Greek,
169
,
171
–2,
209
,
218
,
250
,
349

Latin,
169
,
250
,
305
,
349
,
556

Arabic,
334
,
339
,
340
,
1066

Romance,
407

Urdu,
438

French as international language,
677
,
691

English in India,
817
,
852
impact of Freud,
947

western in Asia,
852

Soviet Union,
1140

Laos

French imperialism,
857

‘associate state’
986

internal divisions,
1062

Lao-Tse (
c.
604–531), Chinese thinker,
145
–6

Lateran treaties,
910

Later Han dynasty in China,
446
–9

Latin America
see
Central America; South America; individual states

Latvia,
1141
,
1155

law and legal institutions

Sumerian,
57

code of Hammurabi,
61
–2

idea of law,
94

Chinese theory,
143
–4

in Greek
polis
,
180
,
196
–7

Roman jurisprudence,
251
,
308

Germanic codifications,
305

idea of fundamental laws,
571
–2

areas of legal immunity,
572

Napoleonic code,
743
,
942

international,
1037
–8

League of Nations

created,
902
–3

insecurity of,
904

Asian policies,
919
,
928
,
929

Arab mandates granted,
939

mediation of,
944
,
952

and UNO,
968

Lebanon

Ottoman rule
see
Ottoman empire

Sumerians and,
60

Phoenicians in,
104

French interest,
936
,
987

independent,
987

in Arab League,
988

internal tensions,
1069
,
1130

invasion by Israel,
1121
–2

and PLO,
1121
–2

Lend-Lease system of US aid,
960
,
966
,
972

Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich (1870–1924), Russian revolutionary statesman,
905
,
1045

Bolshevik revolution and,
896
,
897
,
907

death,
907

Leo I ‘the Great’, pope (440–61),
312

Leo III, pope (795–816),
398
,
412

Leo IX, pope (1049–54),
491
,
492

Leo III, Byzantine emperor (717–41),
354
,
355

Leo IV, Byzantine emperor (775–80),
356

Leonidas (d. 480
BC
), king of Sparta,
186

liberalism

contribution of Enlightenment,
690
–3

and industrialism,
717
–18

associated with republicanism,
727

creed of market society,
746

associated with nationalism,
747

in Russia,
761

threatened,
865
,
921

Liberia,
824
,
1074

Libya

Egypt and,
108

independent,
1069
,
1124
,
1130

oil and,
1070

anti-Americanism,
1131
,
1135

Lincoln, Abraham (1809–65), US president,
777
–8

Lindisfarne, English monastery raided by Vikings,
408

Lister, Joseph (1827–1912), British surgeon,
878
,
880

Li Ta-chao, Chinese Marxist,
921

literacy

in Sumer,
52

spreads in Near East,
93

in Minoan Crete,
99

in India,
122

in China,
137
,
449

in Mediterranean,
168
–9,
230

rare in Dark Age Europe,
305

Islamic,
358

early medieval clerical monopoly,
416

absent in E. Africa,
482

effects of European mastery,
676
–9,
714
,
871

spread in Japan,
842

low in black Africa,
1074

literature

fostered by cities,
44

in Mesopotamia,
52
–3,
54
,
116

in India,
124
–5,
127
,
430

flowers in Mediterranean,
169

range and primacy of Greek,
207
–9

civic content of Roman,
250

Arabic,
338

Russian,
369

Carolingian Renaissance,
399

Norse Sagas,
407
,
411

see also
drama; historiography; poetry; individual writers

Lithuania

medieval duchy,
529
,
530

union with Poland,
611

break with USSR,
1141

and European Union,
1155

Livy, Titus Livius (59
BC
–
AD
17), Roman historian,
250
–1,
254

Lloyd George, David (1863–1945), British statesman,
903

Locke, John, (1632–1704), English philosopher,
666
–7,
687
,
690
,
728

London

growth,
515
,
552

port,
556
,
665

Great Exhibition,
712
,
784

squalor,
713
–14

19th-cent. focus of world economy,
794
–5

Long March (1934),
929

Lothair (795–855), Holy Roman emperor (817–55),
401

Louis I ‘the Pious’ (778–840), Holy Roman emperor (814–40),
401

Louis II ‘the German’ (805–76), king of E. Francia (817–76),
401

Louis XIV (1638–1715), king of France (1643–1715),
461
–2

absolute monarchy of,
590
,
592
–3,
616

foreign policy,
605
–6,
607

navy,
664

compared with Napoleon,
740

Louis XVI (1754–93), king of France (1774–92),
730
,
733
,
734

Louis XVII (1785–95), nominal king of France,
748

Louis XVIII (1755–1824), king of France (1814–24),
748

Louis Philippe (1773–1850), king of France (1830–48),
749
,
751

Louisiana Purchase,
771
,
774
–5,
975

Loyola, St Ignatius (1491–1556), founder of Jesuits,
582

Lula, Luiz Inácia (1945–), Brazilian president, 1901

Luther, Martin (1483–1546),

Protestant reformer,
575
–7,
580

Lycurgus (? 9th cent.
BC
), Spartan legislator,
182

Lydia, ancient kingdom of,
177
,
178
,
184
–5

Lyell, Charles (1797–1875), Scottish geologist,
877

Lyons, persecuted Christians at,
273
,
274

Macao,
636
,
1075

MacArthur, Douglas (1880–1964), US general,
1066

Macartney, George, Lord (1737–1806), British ambassador to China,
831
–2

Macedon

Spartan ally,
189

expansion by Philip II,
213
–14

empire created by Alexander,
214
–17

Roman conquest of,
235
–6

Macedonia (part of Yugoslavia),
1145

Magadha, Indian kingdom of,
127
,
422

Magellan, Ferdinand (
c.
1480–1521), Portuguese navigator,
534

Magna Carta
,
574

Magyars

nationalism of,
366
,
402
–3,
889
,
902

see also
Hungary

Mahabharata
, Indian text,
127
,
426

Mahdi, the (Mohammed Ahmed) (1848–85), Sudanese leader,
793

Mahmud, Afghan ruler of Persia,
392

Mahrattas, Hindu opposition to Moghuls,
441
,
638

Maitland, Frederick William (1850–1906), English historian,
728

Major, John (1943–) British prime minister,
1154

Malaysia

Dutch power in,
637

British interest,
815
,
827
,
857

World War II and,
962

post-war and communists,
987

and Indonesia,
1052

economy,
1116

Mali, African kingdom of,
479
–80,
1072

Malta

temples in,
156
,
157

British acquisition,
814

Malthus, Thomas R. (1766–1834), British economist,
699
–700,
704
,
863
,
877
,
995

Mamelukes, Turkish mercenaries,
373
,
376
–7,
380
,
382
,
383

Manchu dynasty in China (1644–1912),
453

enter China,
461

empire of K’ang-hsi,
461
–4

decline,
831
–40

popular resentment of,
835
,
838

against Taiping,
836

fall,
840

Manchukuo, Japanese puppet state,
928

Manchuria

home of Manchu,
461

Japanese invasion,
848
,
928

western interests,
919

Russian invasion,
971
,
985
,
1056

Chinese policy and,
1054

Russia and,
1056

Mandela, Nelson (1918 –), S. African politician,
1080
–1

Manhattan Project on nuclear weapons,
1012

Manichaeism, Christian heresy,
297
,
318
,
319

Mani (Manichaeus), (
c.
216–
c.
276), founder of Manichaeism,
318

Maori peoples of New Zealand,
806
–7,
811

Mao Tse-tung (1893–1976), Chinese revolutionary statesman

and formation of CCP,
921
–2,
925