The New Penguin History of the World (234 page)

Marxist studies of,
921

peasant revolution and,
925
–6,
929
,
984
,
1057

domination,
1056

‘Cultural Revolution’ and,
1058
–9

views,
1056
–60

death,
1114

Marathas
see
Mahrattas

Marconi, Guglielmo (1874–1937), Italian scientist,
1010

Marco Polo (
c.
1254–
c.
1324), Venetian commercial traveller,
460
,
538

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121–80), Roman emperor (161–80),
247

Marduk, Babylonian god,
64
,
110
,
117
–18,
161

Mari

Sumerian religious centre,
56

Baylonian centre,
61
,
63

Maria Theresia (1717–80), archduchess of Austria and empress (1740–80),
595
,
626
,
627
,
691

Marius, Gaius (155–86
BC
), Roman consul,
240
,
241

Mark Antony (83–30
BC
), Roman general,
245
,
248

Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of (1650–1722), English solider,
891

marriage and family

in Sumer,
56

Pharaonic incest,
81

in China,
139
,
998
,
1059

in Greece,
182
–3,
193
–4

Romans and barbarians,
305

Hindu practices,
432
,
850

clan power,
447
–8,
921
,
924

medieval death-rate and,
552

effects of female emancipation,
869

polygamy forbidden in Turkey,
942

Latin-America,
998

in Soviet Union,
998
–9

India,
998
,
1048

Japan,
1117

see also
women

Marshall Plan of US aid to Europe,
976
,
1041
,
1107

Martin V, pope (1417–31),
501

Marx, Karl Heinrich (1818–83), German socialist philosopher,
714

Communist Manifesto
,
760

worldwide veneration,
797

and social science,
882

Marxism, Marxists

Chinese,
921
–2,
924
,
925

quasi-religious doctrine,
761
,
867
–8

and Bolsheviks,
868
,
897

and Stalin,
908

intellectual impetus,
947

target of Hitler,
953

in Africa,
1077

Mary Tudor (1516–58), queen of England (1553–8),
580

Masada,
271

mathematics

Babylonian,
65

Sumerian,
57

Egyptian,
74

mystical approach of Pythagoras,
203

Euclid,
221

Arabic,
339
,
340
,
538

decimal system in India,
430
,
538

techniques develop,
681
,
684
–5

quantum theory,
1013
–14

Maurice (582–602), Byzantine emperor,
320

Maurya empire in India,
422
–7

Maximian (d. 310), Roman emperor (286–305),
282

Maximilian I (1459–1519), Holy Roman emperor (1493–1519),
509

Maximinus (d. 388), Roman emperor in W.,
277

Maxwell, James Clerk (1831–79), British physicist,
1013

May 4th Movement in China,
920
–1,
922
,
983

Mayan civilization in Meso-america,
36
,
483
–5

Mazzini, Giuseppe (1805–72), Italian nationalist,
747
–8,
757

influence on India,
851
,
853

Mecca, holy city of Islam,
326
,
328
,
372
,
391
,
442

Medes,
117
,
161

Medici family in Florence,
602

medicine

in Egypt,
79
–80

Greek empiricism,
204

Arabic textbooks,
339

medieval European,
523
,
538

progress against disease,
701
–2,
822

antiseptics,
878
,
880

anaesthetics,
880

and genetics,
1016

see also
disease

Medina, City of the Prophet,
328
,
372
,
391
,
938

Mediterranean

early civilization,
167
–70

topography,
167
–8

Ottoman empire,
390

commercial activity in,
417
,
511

see also
individual areas

megalithic monuments,
156
–7

Megasthenes (fl.
c.
300
BC
), Greek writer on India,
422
–3

Mehemet Ali (1769–1849), pasha of Egypt (1805–49),
822
,
932

Mehmet II (1429–81), sultan of Turkey (1451–81),
388
,
390
–1

Meiji Restoration n Japan,
843

authoritarian,
844
–6

westernization,
844
–5

foreign policy,
846
–7

Memel,
955

Memphis, Egypt,
69
–70

Mencius (
c.
372–289
BC
), Chinese thinker,
147

Mendel, Gregor (1822–84), Austrian biologist,
1015

Menes (35th cent.
BC
), king of Egypt,
68
,
70

Mercator, Gerhardus (1512–94), Flemish cartographer,
535

Mercosur,
1090

Merovingian dynasty of Franks,
302
,
303
,
305
,
314
,
395
–7

Merton, Walter de (d. 1277), bishop of Rochester and Lord Chancellor of England,
536

Meso-american cultures,
44
,
152
,
483
–4
see also
Aztecs; Mayan civilization; Olmecs

Mesolithic era,
22
,
29

Mesopotamia

first civilization,
42
,
43
,
47
,
49
–65

contact with Egypt,
68
,
79

literacy in,
94

confusion in,
106
,
107
,
109

trade with Harappans,
122

Parthians in,
224
–5

Arab conquest of,
324
,
330

Turks in,
376
,
937

Mongols in,
384

see also
Iraq

metallurgy

Neolithic origins,
31

social and economic effects,
34
–5

Mesopotamian imports,
57

European skills,
90
–1,
155
,
156

in ancient China,
141
,
147

of Etruscans,
227

European expansion,
516
,
560
,
561

see also
bronze; copper; industrialization; iron; technology; tin

Methodius, St (9th cent.), apostle of Slavs,
364
,
370

Metternich-Winneburg, Prince Clemens von (1773–1859), Austrian statesman,
751

Mexico

maize in,
152

Aztec culture,
485
–6

urban growth,
553

Spanish in,
641
,
643
,
645
,
646
,
667
,
800

territorial losses to US,
772

oil,
804

social divisions,
803
,
804

US intervention,
805

social divisions and revolution,
1081

Michael (1596–1645), tsar of Russia (1613–45),
616

Michael II, Byzantine emperor (820–29),
355

Mieszko I, king of Poland (960–92),
370

Miletus

wool a speciality,
192

early thinkers in,
201
–2

militarism

samurai
ideals,
472
,
473
,
476

restrictions on barbarity,
874

military techniques

cavalry,
89
–90

Indo-European advances,
89

of Assyrians,
116

in China,
142
–3

Greek hoplites,
178
–9

Macedonian phalanx,
213

Parthian skills,
224

Roman army,
233
,
239
–40,
259
,
279
,
281
,
290
–1

Scythian skills,
321
–2

Mongol cavalry,
380
–1

knightly class,
420

British army in India,
850

modern technology and,
874

in World War I,
893

World War II bombing,
965

see also
weapons

Mill, John Stuart (1806–73), British philosopher,
839
,
851

Milošević, Slobadan,
1038
,
1151
,
1171

Minamoto clan in Japan,
469

Ming dynasty in China (1368–1644),
453
,
460
–1

Minoan civilization in Crete

earliest,
42
,
95

character,
95
–6

destruction,
96
–7

naval power,
97

art,
97
,
98

religion,
98
–9

technology,
98

trade,
98

government,
99
–100

achievements,
105

see also
Knossos

Minos, legendary king of Crete,
95
–6,
99

Minotaur, legendary monster,
95
,
99

missionary activity (Christian)

early medieval,
364
,
370
,
397
,
406
,
414
–15

in Japan,
474

impetus to imperialism,
631
,
859

in Latin America,
645
–6

effect of Counter-Reformation,
670

in European cities,
714

and Europeanization,
792
–3,
796

in Australasia,
806
–7

in India,
817
,
859

in China,
834
–5,
836
,
837

in Asia,
859

see also
Jesus, Society of

Missouri Compromise,
775
–6

Mitanni peoples,
84
,
115

Mithras, Zoroastrian deity,
256
,
273

Mithridates I (171–138
BC
), king of Parthia,
224
–5

Mithradates II (
c.
124–87
BC
), king of Parthia,
225

Mithridates VI (132–63
BC
), king of Pontus (120–63
BC
),
239