The Power of Habit: Why We Do What We Do in Life and Business (56 page)

7.21
a black market for poultry
Charles Grutzner, “Horse Meat Consumption by New Yorkers Is Rising,”
The New York Times,
September 25, 1946.

7.22
camouflage it in everyday garb
It is worth noting that this was only one of the committee’s many findings (which ranged far and wide). For a fascinating study on the committee and its impacts, see Brian Wansink, “Changing Eating Habits on the Home Front: Lost Lessons from World War II Research,”
Journal of Public Policy and Marketing
21, no. 1 (2002): 90–99.

7.23
present-day researcher
Wansink, “Changing Eating Habits on the Home Front.”

7.24
cheer for steak and kidney pie”
Brian Wansink,
Marketing Nutrition: Soy, Functional Foods, Biotechnology, and Obesity
(Champaign: University of Illinois, 2007).

7.25
it was up 50 percent
Dan Usher, “Measuring Real Consumption from Quantity Data, Canada 1935–1968,” in
Household Production and Consumption
, ed. Nestor Terleckyj (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1976). It’s very hard to get U.S. data on offal consumption, and so these calculations are based on Canadian trends, where data on the topic is more plentiful. In interviews, U.S. officials said that Canada is a fair proxy for U.S. trends. The calculations in Usher’s paper draw on calculations of “canned meat,” which contained offal.

7.26
“sizable increases in trips and sales”
Target Corporation Analyst Meeting, October 18, 2005.

8.1
a ten-cent fare into the till
For my understanding of the Montgomery bus boycott, I am indebted to those historians who have made themselves available to me, including John A. Kirk and Taylor Branch. My understanding of these events also draws on John A. Kirk,
Martin Luther King, Jr.: Profiles in Power
(New York: Longman, 2004); Taylor Branch,
Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–63
(New York:
Simon and Schuster, 1988); Taylor Branch,
Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963–65
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998); Taylor Branch,
At Canaan’s Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–68
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006); Douglas Brinkley,
Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory: The Life of Rosa Parks
(London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2000); Martin Luther King, Jr.,
Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story
(New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958); Clayborne Carson, ed.,
The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr.,
vol. 1,
Called to Serve
(Berkeley: University of California, 1992), vol. 2,
Rediscovering Precious Values
(1994), vol. 3,
Birth of a New Age
(1997), vol. 4
, Symbol of the Movement
(2000), vol. 5,
Threshold of a New Decade
(2005); Aldon D. Morris,
The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement
(New York: Free Press, 1986); James Forman
, The Making of Black Revolutionaries
(Seattle: University of Washington, 1997). Where not cited, facts draw primarily from those sources.

8.2
“You may do that,” Parks said
Henry Hampton and Steve Fayer, eds.,
Voices of Freedom: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s Through the 1980s
(New York: Bantam Books, 1995); Rosa Parks,
Rosa Parks: My Story
(New York: Puffin, 1999).

8.3
“the law is the law”
John A. Kirk,
Martin Luther King, Jr.: Profiles in Power
(New York: Longman, 2004).

8.4
a three-part process
For more on the sociology of movements, see G. Davis, D. McAdam, and W. Scott,
Social Movements and Organizations
(New York: Cambridge University, 2005); Robert Crain and Rita Mahard, “The Consequences of Controversy Accompanying Institutional Change: The Case of School Desegregation,”
American Sociological Review
47, no. 6 (1982): 697–708; Azza Salama Layton, “International Pressure and the U.S. Government’s Response to Little Rock,”
Arkansas Historical Quarterly
56, no. 3 (1997): 257–72; Brendan Nelligan, “The Albany Movement and the Limits of Nonviolent Protest in Albany, Georgia, 1961–1962,” Providence College Honors Thesis, 2009; Charles Tilly,
Social Movements, 1768–2004
(London: Paradigm, 2004); Andrew Walder, “Political Sociology and Social Movements,”
Annual Review of Sociology
35 (2009): 393–412; Paul Almeida,
Waves of Protest: Popular Struggle in El Salvador, 1925–2005
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 2008); Robert Benford, “An Insider’s Critique of the Social Movement Framing Perspective,”
Sociological Inquiry
67, no. 4 (1997): 409–30; Robert Benford and David Snow, “Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment,”
Annual Review of Sociology
26 (2000): 611–39; Michael Burawoy,
Manufacturing Consent: Changes in the Labor Process Under Monopoly Capitalism
(Chicago: University of Chicago, 1979); Carol Conell and Kim Voss, “Formal Organization and the Fate of Social Movements: Craft Association and Class Alliance in the Knights of Labor,”
American Sociological Review
55, no. 2 (1990): 255–69; James Davies, “Toward a Theory of Revolution,”
American Sociological Review
27, no. 1 (1962): 5–18; William Gamson,
The Strategy of Social Protest
(Homewood,
Ill.: Dorsey, 1975); Robert Benford, “An Insider’s Critique of the Social Movement Framing Perspective,”
Sociological Inquiry
67, no. 4 (1997): 409–30; Jeff Goodwin,
No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements
,
1945–1991
(New York: Cambridge University, 2001); Jeff Goodwin and James Jasper, eds.,
Rethinking Social Movements: Structure, Meaning, and Emotion
(Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2003); Roger Gould, “Multiple Networks and Mobilization in the Paris Commune, 1871,”
American Sociological Review
56, no. 6 (1991): 716–29; Joseph Gusfield, “Social Structure and Moral Reform: A Study of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union,”
American Journal of Sociology
61, no. 3 (1955): 221–31; Doug McAdam,
Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency
,
1930–1970
(Chicago: University of Chicago, 1982); Doug McAdam, “Recruitment to High-Risk Activism: The Case of Freedom Summer,”
American Journal of Sociology
92, no. 1 (1986): 64–90; Doug McAdam, “The Biographical Consequences of Activism,”
American Sociological Review
54, no. 5 (1989): 744–60; Doug McAdam, “Conceptual Origins, Current Problems, Future Directions,” in
Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings,
ed. Doug McAdam, John McCarthy, and Mayer Zald (New York: Cambridge University, 1996); Doug McAdam and Ronnelle Paulsen, “Specifying the Relationship Between Social Ties and Activism,”
American Journal of Sociology
99, no. 3 (1993): 640–67; D. McAdam, S. Tarrow, and C. Tilly,
Dynamics of Contention
(Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2001); Judith Stepan-Norris and Judith Zeitlin, “ ‘Who Gets the Bird?’ or, How the Communists Won Power and Trust in America’s Unions,”
American Sociological Review
54, no. 4 (1989): 503–23; Charles Tilly,
From Mobilization to Revolution
(Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1978).

8.5
talking back to a Montgomery bus driver
Phillip Hoose,
Claudette Colvin: Twice Toward Justice
(New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2009).

8.6
and refusing to move
Ibid.

8.7
sitting next to a white man
Russell Freedman
, Freedom Walkers: The Story of the Montgomery Bus Boycott
(New York: Holiday House, 2009).

8.8
“indignities which came with it”
Martin Luther King, Jr.,
Stride Toward Freedom
(New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958).

8.9
“a dozen or so sociopaths”
Taylor Branch,
Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–63
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988).

8.10
“white folks will kill you”
Douglas Brinkley,
Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory: The Life of Rosa Parks
(London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2000).

8.11
“happy to go along with it”
John A. Kirk,
Martin Luther King, Jr.: Profiles in Power
(New York: Longman, 2004).

8.12
in protest of the arrest and trial
Carson,
Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr.

8.13
how 282 men had found their
Mark Granovetter,
Getting a Job: A Study of Contacts and Careers
(Chicago: University of Chicago, 1974).

8.14
we would otherwise never hear about
Andreas Flache and Michael Macy, “The Weakness of Strong Ties: Collective Action Failure in a Highly Cohesive Group,”
Journal of Mathematical Sociology
21 (1996): 3–28. For more on this topic, see Robert Axelrod,
The Evolution of Cooperation
(New York: Basic Books, 1984); Robert Bush and Frederick Mosteller,
Stochastic Models for Learning
(New York: Wiley, 1984); I. Erev, Y. Bereby-Meyer, and A. E. Roth, “The Effect of Adding a Constant to All Payoffs: Experimental Investigation and Implications for Reinforcement Learning Models,”
Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization
39, no. 1 (1999): 111–28; A. Flache and R. Hegselmann, “Rational vs. Adaptive Egoism in Support Networks: How Different Micro Foundations Shape Different Macro Hypotheses,” in
Game Theory, Experience, Rationality: Foundations of Social Sciences, Economics, and Ethics in Honor of John C. Harsanyi (Yearbook of the Institute Vienna Circle),
ed. W. Leinfellner and E. Köhler (Boston: Kluwer, 1997), 261–75; A. Flache and R. Hegselmann, “Rationality vs. Learning in the Evolution of Solidarity Networks: A Theoretical Comparison,”
Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory
5, no. 2 (1999): 97–127; A. Flache and R. Hegselmann, “Dynamik Sozialer Dilemma-Situationen,” final research report of the DFG
-
Project Dynamics of Social Dilemma Situations, University of Bayreuth, Department of Philosophie, 2000; A. Flache and Michael Macy, “Stochastic Collusion and the Power Law of Learning,”
Journal of Conflict Resolution
46, no. 5 (2002): 629–53; Michael Macy, “Learning to Cooperate: Stochastic and Tacit Collusion in Social Exchange,”
American Journal of Sociology
97, no. 3 (1991): 808–43; E. P. H. Zeggelink, “Evolving Friendship Networks: An Individual-Oriented Approach Implementing Similarity,”
Social Networks
17 (1996): 83–110; Judith Blau, “When Weak Ties Are Structured,” unpublished manuscript, Department of Sociology, State University of New York, Albany, 1980; Peter Blau, “Parameters of Social Structure,”
American Sociological Review
39, no. 5 (1974): 615–35; Scott Boorman, “A Combinatorial Optimization Model for Transmission of Job Information Through Contact Networks,”
Bell Journal of Economics
6, no. 1 (1975): 216–49; Ronald Breiger and Philippa Pattison, “The Joint Role Structure of Two Communities’ Elites,”
Sociological Methods and Research
7, no. 2 (1978): 213–26; Daryl Chubin, “The Conceptualization of Scientific Specialties,”
Sociological Quarterly
17, no. 4 (1976): 448–76; Harry Collins, “The TEA Set: Tacit Knowledge and Scientific Networks,”
Science Studies
4, no. 2 (1974): 165–86; Rose Coser, “The Complexity of Roles as Seedbed of Individual Autonomy,” in
The Idea of Social Structure: Essays in Honor of Robert Merton,
ed. L. Coser (New York: Harcourt, 1975); John Delany, “Aspects of Donative Resource Allocation and the Efficiency of Social Networks: Simulation Models of Job Vacancy Information Transfers
Through Personal Contacts,” PhD diss., Yale University, 1980; E. Ericksen and W. Yancey, “The Locus of Strong Ties,” unpublished manuscript, Department of Sociology, Temple University, 1980.

8.15
most of the population will be untouched
Mark Granovetter, “The Strength of Weak Ties: A Network Theory Revisited,”
Sociological Theory
1 (1983): 201–33.

8.16
registering black voters in the South
McAdam, “Recruitment to High-Risk Activism.”

8.17
more than three hundred of those invited
Ibid.; Paulsen, “Specifying the Relationship Between Social Ties and Activism.”

8.18
participated in Freedom Summer
In a fact-checking email, McAdam provided a few details about the study’s genesis: “My initial interest was in trying to understand the links between the civil rights movement and the other early new left movements, specifically the student movement, the anti-war movement, and women’s liberation movement. It was only after I found the applications and realized that some were from volunteers and others from ‘no shows’ that I got interested in explaining (a) why some made it to Mississippi and others didn’t, and (b) the longer term impact of going/not-going on the two groups.”

8.19
impossible for them to withdraw
In another fact-checking email, McAdam wrote: “For me the significance of the organizational ties is not that they make it ‘impossible’ for the volunteer to withdraw, but that they insure that the applicant will likely receive lots of support for the link between the salient identity in question (i.e., Christian) and participation in the summer project. As I noted in [an article] ‘it is a strong subjective identification with a particular identity,
reinforced by organizational ties
that is especially likely to encourage participation.’ ”