The Psychology Book (96 page)

1947-70S

1954

1968

1986

1950

1955

1973

1990S

J.P. Guilford suggests that

David Wechsler

David Rosenhan

Researchers agree on the

the
Structure of Intellect

develops the

questions the validity of

“big five” personality

(SI) has three dimensions:

Wechsler Adult

psychiatric notions of

traits
—openness,

content, products, and

Intelligence Scale

normal or sane in his

conscientiousness,

operations.

(WAIS).

pseudo-patient

extraversion, neuroticism,

experiments
.

and agreeableness.

reaction to various circumstances.

was assumed to be an inherited

up general intelligence. This notion

Not only was personality found to

characteristic (and carried with it

of a single measure of intelligence

be less consistent than had been

connotations of racial stereotypes

was challenged by J.P. Guilford, who

assumed, but in some cases there

and eugenics) rather than one

believed that intelligence consists of

was the possibility of an individual

influenced by environment. The

a number of different abilities, an

having more than one distinct

issue of nature versus nurture in

idea that led to Raymond Cattell’s

personality. In a case made famous

determining intelligence became

theory of fluid and crystallized

by a book and film,
The Three Faces

key, with psychologists including

intelligence—two levels of

of Eve
, psychiatrists Corbett H.

Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysenck

reasoning and critical thinking.

Thigpen and Hervey M. Cleckley

defending a hereditary viewpoint,

Research into other areas of

described multiple personality

and others arguing that not only is

psychological difference has

disorder, now called dissociative

intelligence affected by environment,

included emotions and facial

identity disorder.

but the way it is tested is culturally

expressions, pioneered by Paul

biased, giving distorted results.

Ekman and Nico Frijda, and

The intelligence factor

In the early 20th century, British

psychological disorders, but David

Another factor that distinguishes

psychologist Charles Spearman had

Rosenhan’s experiment showed

us as individuals is intelligence.

laid the foundations for a more

that it is not easy to distinguish

This had been studied from the

objective, scientific study of

the “normal” from the “abnormal.”

earliest days of psychology, but

intelligence by using statistical

Individual differences appear to

had proved difficult to define or

techniques to test and measure

be points on a spectrum, rather

measure. Studies are also frequently

intelligence. He identified a single

than easily labeled divisions—

controversial; since the time of

factor, the “g factor,” that correlated

highlighting the complexity and

Darwin and Galton, intelligence

to all the mental abilities that make

diversity of human psychology. ■

304

NAME AS MANY USES

AS YOU CAN THINK OF

FOR A TOOTHPICK

J.P. GUILFORD (1897–1987)

IN CONTEXT

APPROACH

A
lthough intelligence, and children who might benefit from

what makes up intelligence,

educational assistance. Together

had been discussed since

with researcher Theodore Simon, he

the time of ancient Greece, the first

created the “Binet–Simon Scale,”

Intelligence psychometrics

systematic method of measuring

which used memory, attention, and

BEFORE

intelligence was not developed until

problem-solving tasks to measure

1905, when the French psychologist

and produce a number, or “quotient,”

19th century
Wilhelm Wundt,

Alfred Binet was asked to identify

that summarizes intellectual ability.

Gustav Fechner, and Francis

Galton claim that individual

differences in people’s

cognitive abilities can be

empirically measured.

Questions of
memory
and

Problems requiring

simple
problem-solving
…

creative solutions
…

1904
British psychologist

Charles Spearman claims

intelligence can be summed

up in a single number.

1938
British psychologist

L.L. Thurstone identifies seven

…can be answered using

…can be solved using

independent factors that make

convergent thinking
–

divergent thinking
–

up a person’s “primary

the ability to come up with

exploring many possible

abilities” or intelligence.

one “correct” answer.

avenues at once.

AFTER

1969
Philip E. Vernon

estimates that intelligence

is 60 percent inborn.

1974
US psychologist Ellis

This requires a new

This can be tested

Paul Torrence produces his

form of testing that includes

using
standardized

own tests of creativity, which

both
problem-solving

intelligence (IQ) tests.

are most widely used today.

and imagination
.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 305

See also:
Alfred Binet 50–53 ■ Raymond Cattell 314–15 ■ Hans J. Eysenck 316–21 ■ William Stern 334 ■

David Wechsler 336

it has fundamental flaws. Standard

happen if all national and local laws

intelligence tests, he says, ignore

were suddenly abolished. Guilford

creativity and assume that there is

scored the answers on levels of four

a “general intelligence” that can be

key components: originality,

represented by an IQ score.

fluency, flexibility, and elaboration.

Guilford claims that intelligence

Measuring creativity

is not made up of just one “general

By definition, creativity means there

factor,” but of three different groups

is more than one answer to any

of activities. “Operations” are the

problem. It requires a different kind

intellectual processes we use; there

of thinking, which Guilford calls

are six types of these, including

“divergent,” since it goes in different

memory, cognition, and evaluation.

directions and produces multiple

“Content” is the type of information

solutions to a problem. In contrast,

or data involved—there are five of

Creative minds see even toothpicks

as potentially having hundreds of uses.

traditional IQ tests require thinking

these, including visual and auditory

Guilford’s “Alternative Uses Test” scores

that ends up with a single answer:

content. “Products” are the results of

people on their ability to think of many

“convergent” thinking.

applying operations to content, such

original and widely assorted alternatives.

Guilford thought that creativity

as classes or relations, and there

was measurable—it is indicated by

are six of these. The many ways in

The average intelligence quotient

the number of directions in which a

which we combine and use these

(IQ) was set for convenience at 100,

person’s thoughts travel. He devised

different types means there may be

allowing psychologists to categorize

a number of tests to quantify

anything up to 180 (6 × 5 × 6) types

people in relation to this score. In

divergent thinking, including his

of intelligence—more than 100 of

practice, around 95 percent of the

1967 “Alternative Uses Test,” which

these have already been verified.

general population score between

asks participants to write as many

The complexity of Guilford’s

70 and 130, and the top 0.5 percent

uses as they can think of for: (a) a

theory and problems with testing

score over 145, the “genius” level.

toothpick, (b) a brick, and (c) a paper

mean that his tests are used less

Although the scale is still

clip. In his “Consequences Test,”

frequently than standard IQ tests,

used for most IQ tests today, US

subjects were asked to imagine all

but his work has influenced research

psychologist J.P. Guilford believes

the things that might possibly

into intelligence and creativity. ■

World War II—until his

J.P. Guilford

retirement in 1967. Described as

Joy Paul Guilford was born on

a devoted family man of

a farm in Nebraska. Always

enormous integrity and

markedly intelligent, he was the

generosity, his shyness earned

The person who is

valedictorian of his high school

him the nickname “gray ghost”

class. His bachelor’s degree in

during his time in the army. An

capable of producing

psychology was interrupted by a

influential and prolific

a large number of ideas

spell in the army as a private,

researcher, Guilford produced

per unit of time… has a

but he went on to earn a PhD

more than 25 books, 30 tests,

greater chance of having

from Cornell University. In 1928,

and 300 articles.

significant ideas.

he returned to Nebraska as an

J.P. Guilford

associate professor, then took a

Key works

position at the University of

Southern California (USC) in

1936
Psychometric Methods

1940, remaining there—apart

1967
The Nature of Human

from a short secondment during

Intelligence

DID ROBINSON CRUSOE

LACK PERSONALITY TRAITS

BEFORE

THE ADVENT OF

FR

GORDON ALLPORT (1897–1967)

IDAY?