The Village Effect: How Face-to-Face Contact Can Make Us Healthier and Happier (50 page)

30.
Craig Howard Kinsley and Elizabeth Meyer, “Maternal Mentality: Pregnancy and Childbirth Shape a Woman’s Mental Makeover,”
Scientific American Mind
, July/August 2011; C. H. Kinsley et al., “Motherhood Induces and Maintains Behavioral and Neural Plasticity across the Lifespan in the Rat,”
Archives of Sexual Behavior
37 (2008); A. S. Fleming and M. Korsmit, “Plasticity in the Maternal Circuit: Effects of Maternal Experience on Fos-Lir in Hypothalamic, Limbic and Cortical Structures in the Postpartum Rat,”
Behavioral Neuroscience
110 (1996).

31.
Pilyoung Kim et al., “The Plasticity of the Human Maternal Brain: Longitudinal Changes in Brain Anatomy during the Early Postpartum Period,”
Behavioral Neuroscience
124, no. 5 (2010).

32.
Kinsley and Meyer, “Maternal Mentality”; Kim et al., “The Plasticity of the Human Maternal Brain.”

33.
Gloria K. Mak and Samuel Weiss, “Paternal Recognition of Adult Offspring Mediated by Newly Generated CNS Neurons,”
Nature Neuroscience
13 (2010).

34.
Stephen Jay Gould, “A Biological Homage to Mickey Mouse,” in
The Panda’s Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History
(New York: Norton, 1980).

35.
Gary Sherman, Jonathan Haidt, and J. A. Coan, “Viewing Cute Images Increases Behavioral Carefulness,”
Emotion
9, no. 2 (2009); Hiroshi Nittono et al., “The Power of Kawaii: Viewing Cute Images Promotes a Careful Behavior and Narrows Attentional Focus,”
PLOS One
7, no. 9 (2012); Gary Sherman et al., “Individual Differences in the Physical Embodiment of Care: Prosocially Oriented Women Respond to Cuteness by Becoming More Physically Careful,”
Emotion
13, no. 1 (2013).

36.
S. Henkel, M. Heistermann, and J. Fischer, “Infants as Costly Social Tools in Male Barbary Macaque Networks,”
Animal Behaviour
79, no. 6 (2010); Michael Kesterton, “Sensitive, Huggy Guys,”
Globe and Mail
, April 23, 2010; Brian Mossop, “The Brains of Our Fathers: Does Parenting Rewire Dads?”
Scientific American Mind
, July/August, 2011.

37.
Konner,
The Evolution of Childhood
, 432.

38.
Joan B. Silk et al., “The Benefits of Social Capital: Close Social Bonds among Female Baboons Enhance Offspring Survival,”
Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological Sciences
2009, no. 276 (2009); J. B. Silk, D.

S. Alberts, and J. Altmann, “Social Bonds of Female Baboons Enhance Infant Survival,”
Science
302 (2003); Cheney and Seyfarth,
Baboon Metaphysics
.

39.
Leslie A. Pray, “Epigenetics: Genome, Meet Your Environment,”
The Scientist
, July 4, 2004.

40.
L. H. Lumey, “Decreased Birthweights in Infants after Maternal in Utero Exposure to the Dutch Famine of 1944–1945,”
Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology
6, no. 2 (1992); Bastiaan Heijmans et al., “Persistent Epigenetic Differences Associated with Prenatal Exposure to Famine in Humans,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
105, no. 44 (2008).

41.
G. Kaati, L. O. Bygren, and S. Edvinsson, “Cardiovascular and Diabetes Mortality Determined by Nutrition during Parents’ and Grandparents’ Slow Growth Period,”
European Journal of Human Genetics
10, no. 11 (2002); Marcus Pembrey et al., “Sex-Specific, Male-Line Transgenerational Responses in Humans,”
European Journal of Human Genetics
14 (2006).

42.
Ian C. G. Weaver et al., “Epigenetic Programming by Maternal Behavior,”
Nature Neuroscience
7, no. 8 (2004); Michael J. Meaney, “Maternal Care, Gene Expression, and the Transmission of Individual Differences in Stress Reactivity across Generations,”
Annual Review of Neuroscience
24 (2001).

43.
Blum,
Love at Goon Park
, 177.

44.
Francesca Cirulli et al., “Early Life Stress as a Risk Factor for Mental Health: Role of Neurotrophins from Rodents to Non-human Primates,”
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
33 (2009).

45.
Claudia Fahlke et al., “Rearing Experiences and Stress-Induced Plasma Cortisol as Early Risk Factors for Excessive Alcohol Consumption in Nonhuman Primates,”
Alcoholims: Clinical and Experimental Research
24, no. 5 (2000).

CHAPTER 6: DIGITAL NATIVES

1.
  Ruth Hubbell McKey and et al., “The Impact of Head Start on Children, Families and Communities: Final Report of the Head Start Evaluation, Synthesis and Utilization Project,” in
Head Start Evaluation, Synthesis and Utilization Project
(Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1985); Valerie E. Lee et al., “Are Head Start Effects Sustained? A Longitudinal Follow-up Comparison of Disadvantaged Children Attending Head Start, No Preschool, and Other Preschool Programs,”
Child Development
61, no. 2 (1990). The Lee et al. study does show long-term effects of preschool experience in general, but children attending Head Start interventions showed no long-term advantages over other kids from similar backgrounds in other preschool programs.

2.
  Alan Mendelsohn et al., “The Impact of a Clinic Based Literacy Intervention on Language Development in Inner-City Preschool Children,”
Pediatrics
107, no. 1 (2001); P. E. Klass, R. Needlman, and Barry Zuckerman, “The Developing Brain and Early Learning,”
Archives of Disease in Childhood
88 (2003); N. Golova et al., “Literacy Promotion for Hispanic Families in a Primary Care Setting: A Randomized Controlled Trial,”
Pediatrics
103 (1998); Barry Zuckerman, “Promoting Early Literacy in Pediatric Practice: Twenty Years of Reach Out and Read,”
Pediatrics
124, no. 6 (2009).

3.
  C. E. Huebner and A. N. Meltzoff, “Intervention to Change Parent–Child Reading Style: A Comparison of Instructional Methods,”
Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology
26, no. 3 (2005).

4.
  
V. J. Rideout, Ulla G. Foehr, and Donald F. Roberts,
Generation M2: Media in the Lives of 8- to 18-Year-Olds
, (Menlo Park, CA: Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2010); Matt Richtel, “Wasting Time Is the New Divide in the Digital Era,”
New York Times
, May 29, 2012.

5.
  These children lived in a downtrodden part of Chicago where only 16% of the elementary school population had met the local low-ball
No Child Left Behind
standards. Dan Hurley, “Can You Build a Better Brain? A New Working Memory Game Has Revived the Tantalizing Notion that People Can Make Themselves Smarter,”
New York Times Magazine
, April, 22, 2012.

6.
  Zuckerman, “Promoting Early Literacy.”

7.
  B. E. Hamilton, J. A. Martin, and S. J. Ventura, “Births: Preliminary Data for 2010,”
National Vital Statistics Reports
60, no. 2 (2011).

8.
  B. E. Hamilton, J. A. Martin, and S. J. Ventura, “Births: Preliminary Data for 2009,”
National Vital Statistics Reports
60, no. 1 (2010): 4, table 3.

9.
  United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, “Age Specific Fertility Rates by Major Area, Region and Country (Births per 1000 Women): Estimates 1995–2010,”
World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision
(2011).

10.
Marco Francesconi,
Adult Outcomes for Children of Teenage Mothers
(Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor, 2007); United Nations, “Age Specific Fertility Rates.”

11.
Lisa Belkin, “So, Like You Want Your Kids to Speak, Like Properly?”
Huffington Post
,
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/lisa-belkin/teen-speech-patterns_b_1307114.html?view=print&comm_ref=false
.

12.
Rideout, Foehr, and Roberts,
Generation M2
; Lydia Plowman, J. McPake, and C. Stephen, “The Technologisation of Childhood? Young Children and Technology in the Home,”
Children and Society
24, no. 1 (2010); E. De Decker et al., “Influencing Factors of Screen Time in Preschool Children: An Exploration of Parents’ Perceptions Through Focus Groups in Six European Countries,”
Obesity Reviews
13, no. 1 (2012); Aric Sigman, “Time for a View on Screen Time,”
Archives of Disease in Childhood
97, no. 11 (2012).

13.
V. J. Rideout, Ulla G. Foehr, and Donald F. Roberts,
Generation M2: Media in the Lives of 8–18 Year-Olds
(Menlo Park, CA: Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2010).

14.
Suzy Tomopoulos et al., “Infant Media Exposure and Toddler Development,”
Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine
164, no. 12 (2010); Alan Mendelsohn et al., “Infant Television and Video Exposure Associated with Limited Parent–Child Verbal Interactions in Low Socioeconomic Status Households,”
Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine
162, no. 5 (2008).

15.
Annette Lareau,
Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race and Family Life
, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011).

16.
Elizabeth Vandewater, David Bickham, and June Lee, “Time Well Spent? Relating Television Use to Children’s Free-Time Activities,”
Pediatrics
117, no. 2 (2006); Mendelsohn et al., “Infant Television and Video Exposure”; Tomopoulos et al., “Infant Media Exposure.”

17.
Kevin Hartnett, “The Perils of Parenting Style,”
Pennsylvania Gazette
, September/October 2011; David Brooks,
The Social Animal: The Hidden Sources of Love, Character, and Achievement
(New York: Random House, 2012).

18.
Brooks,
The Social Animal
.

19.
Hartnett, “The Perils of Parenting Style”; Lareau,
Unequal Childhoods
.

20.
De Decker et al., “Influencing Factors of Screen Time.”

21.
B. Hart and T. R. Risley,
Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experiences of Young American Children
(Baltimore: Brookes, 1995); Lareau,
Unequal Childhoods
; Brooks,
The Social Animal
.

22.
Hilary Stout, “Hi, Grandma! (Pocket Zoo on Hold),”
New York Times
, October 17, 2010.

23.
Carly Shuler, “Kids and Apps: The Pass-Back Effect Marches Forward” [blog], Joan Ganz Cooney Center, April 2010,
http://www.joanganzcooneycenter.org/2010/06/02/kids-apps-the-pass-back-effect-marches-forward/
; Aaron Smith, “Smartphone Ownership 2013 Update,” Pew Internet and American Life Project, June 5, 2013; Joanna Brenner, “Pew Internet: Mobile,” Pew Internet and American Life
Project, September 18, 2013,
http://www.pewinternet.org/Commentary/2012/February/Pew-Internet-Mobile.aspx
.

24.
F. J. Zimmerman, D. A. Christakis, and A. N. Meltzoff, “Television and DVD/Video Viewing in Children Younger than 2 Years,”
Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine
161 (2007); De Decker et al., “Influencing factors of screen time”; Plowman, McPake, and Stephen, “The Technologisation of Childhood?”; Lydia Plowman, J. McPake, and C. Stephen, “Just Picking It Up? Young Children Learning with Technology at Home,”
Cambridge Journal of Education
38, no. 3 (2008).

25.
Carly Shuler, “iLearn II: An Analysis of the Education Category on Apple’s App Store.” (New York: Joan Ganz Cooney Center, 2012).

26.
A. N. Meltzoff et al., “Foundations for a New Science of Learning,”
Science
325 (2009).

27.
Ari Brown, “Media Use by Children Younger than 2 Years,”
Pediatrics
128, no. 5 (2011); D. A. Christakis, “The Effects of Infant Media Usage: What Do We Know and What Should We Learn?”
Acta Paediatrica
98 (2009); Zimmerman, Christakis, and Meltzoff, “Television and DVD/Video Viewing”; V. J. Rideout and E. Hamel,
The Media Family: Electronic Media in the Lives of Infants, Toddlers, Preschoolers, and Their Parents
(Menlo Park, CA: Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2006); Pooja S. Tandon et al., “Preschoolers’ Total Daily Screen Time at Home and by Type of Child Care,”
Pediatrics
124, no. 6 (2009); Susan Lamontagne, Rakesh Singh, and Craig Palosky, “Daily Media Use among Children and Teens Up Dramatically from Five Years Ago,” Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (website), January 2010.

28.
Kamila B. Mistry et al., “Children’s Television Exposure and Behavioral and Social Outcomes at 5.5 Years: Does Timing of Exposure Matter?”
Pediatrics
120, no. 4 (2007).

29.
The only factor the team did not control for was genes. Interestingly, lots of television- and video-watching also takes place in child care—especially home daycare centers, according to two huge, well-executed studies. This is an especially pernicious practice given that most parents are under the impression that while they are at work, their child is
being stimulated by age-appropriate supervised play with peers of the same age. This is not necessarily the case. Though children in organized day centers had lower rates of screen time (3.2 hours) than those staying with parents at home (4.4 hours), children in home-based daycare centers had the highest rates of television and video watching of all (5.5 hours). Tandon et al., “Preschoolers’ Total Daily Screen Time” ’ D. A. Christakis, F. J. Zimmerman, and M. Garrison, “Television Viewing in Child Care Programs: A National Survey,”
Community Report
19 (2006).

30.
L. S. Pagani et al., “Prospective Associations between Early Childhood Television Exposure and Academic, Psychosocial, and Physical Well-being by Middle Childhood,”
Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine
164, no. 5 (2010); Sylvain-Jacques Desjardins, “Toddlers and TV: Early Exposure Has Negative and Long-Term Impact,”
Forum
(University of Montreal), May 3, 2010.

31.
David Biello, “Fact or Fiction: Archimedes Coined the Term Eureka in the Bath,”
Scientific American
, December 8, 2006.