The Village Effect: How Face-to-Face Contact Can Make Us Healthier and Happier (51 page)

32.
Steven Pinker,
The Language Instinct
(New York: William Morrow, 1994).

33.
D. A. Christakis et al., “Audible Television and Decreased Adult Words, Infant Vocalizations, and Conversational Turns: A Population Based Study,”
Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine
163, no. 6 (2009).

34.
F. J. Zimmerman and D. A. Christakis, “Children’s Television Viewing and Cognitive Outcomes,”
Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine
159, no. 7 (2005): Tomopolous et al., “Infant Media Exposure”; D. L. Linebarger and D. Walker, “Infants’ and Toddlers’ Television Viewing and Language Outcomes,”
American Behavioral Scientist
48, no. 5 (2005); Mendelsohn et al., “Infant Television and Video Exposure.”

35.
P. Greenfield et al., “The Program-Length Commercial: A Study of the Effects of Television/Toy Tie-Ins on Imaginative Play,”
Psychology and Marketing
7, no. 4 (1990); J. T. Piotrowski, N. Jennings, and D. L. Linebarger, “Extending the Lessons of Educational Television with Young American Children,”
Journal of Children and Media
7, no. 2 (2013).

36.
Dina L. G. Borzekowski and J. E. Macha, “The Role of Kilimani Sesame in the Healthy Development of Tanzanian Preschool Children,”
Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology
31, no. 4 (2010); D. L. Linebarger and K. McMenamin,
Evaluation of the Between the Lions Mississippi Literacy Initiative, 2008–2009
(Philadelphia: Annenberg School of Communication, University of Pennsylvania, 2010); Piotrowski, Jennings, and Linebarger, “Extending the Lessons of Educational Television”; M. B. Robb, R.A. Richert, and E. Wartella, “Just a Talking Book? Word Learning from Watching Baby Videos,”
British Journal of Developmental Psychology
27 (2009).

37.
D. L. Linebarger and Sarah E. Vaala, “Screen Media and Language Development in Infants and Toddlers: An Ecological Perspective,”
Developmental Review
30 (2010); D. R. Anderson and T. A. Pempek, “Television and Very Young Children,”
American Behavioral Scientist
48, no. 5 (2005); Robb, Richert, and Wartella, “Just a Talking Book?”; Christakis, “The Effects of Infant Media Usage”; Brown, “Media Use by Children”; Katherine Nelson, “Structure and Strategy in Learning to Talk,”
Monographs in Social Research in Child Development
38, no. 1/2 (1973).

38.
Tamar Lewin, “No Einstein in Your Crib? Get a Refund,”
New York Times
, October 23, 2009; Josh Golin, “These Apps Will Not Educate Your Baby,”
Huffington Post
, August 13, 2013; Federal Trade Commission v. Your Baby Can LLC, et al., 3:12 CV 02114 DMS BGS, United States District Court, Southern District of California (2013).

39.
Plowman, McPake, and Stephen, “The Technologisation of Childhood?”; Rideout and Hamel,
The Media Family
.

40.
Christakis, “The Effects of Infant Media Usage.”

41.
D. A. Christakis et al., “Early Television Exposure and Subsequent Attentional Problems in Children,”
Pediatrics
113, no. 4 (2004). This is a large, well-executed study of about 1,300 children surveyed from infancy to age seven as part of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. But as this is an observational, not an experimental, study, we still can’t tell whether children who watch more television as
preschoolers later develop difficulties with sustaining their attention, or whether children who already find it difficult to concentrate and sit still may find it especially appealing to sit in front of a screen with rapidly changing video images. I suspect the two are intertwined, and probably compounded by the fact that ADHD is often hereditary. A parent with ADHD may be less likely than a parent without this syndrome to set limits for a restless child. Sigman, “Time for a View on Screen Time.”

42.
Angeline Lillard and Jennifer Peterson, “The Immediate Impact of Different Types of Television on Young Children’s Executive Function,”
Pediatrics
128, no. 4 (2011).

43.
C. Fitzpatrick, L. S. Pagani, and T. A. Barnett, “Early Exposure to Media Violence and Later Child Adjustment,”
Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics
33, no. 4 (2012); Kimberly Schonert-Reichl et al.,
Middle Childhood Inside and Out: The Psychological and Social World of Children 9–12
(Vancouver: University of British Columbia and United Way of the Lower Mainland, 2007).

44.
Adam Gorlick, “Media Multitaskers Pay Mental Price,”
Stanford University News
, August 24, 2009; Eyal Ophir, Clifford Nass, and Anthony D. Wagner, “Cognitive Control in Media Multitaskers,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
106, no. 37 (2009).

45.
Roy Pea et al., “Media Use, Face-to-Face Communication, Media Multitasking and Social Well-being among 8- to 12-Year-Old Girls,”
Developmental Psychology
48, no. 2 (2012); Rideout, Foehr, and Roberts,
Generation M2
.

46.
Sam Anderson, “The Hyperaddictive, Time-Sucking, Relationship-Busting, Mind-Crushing Power and Allure of Silly Digital Games,”
New York Times Magazine
, April 8, 2012.

47.
The more sinister posts feature photos of girls taken when they were too drunk to know that some high-school boys had raped them and texted photos of their “conquest” or posted them on social networking sites. Dennis Cauchon, William Cummings, and John Bacon, “Ohio High
School Football Team Players Guilty in Rape Case,”
USA Today
, March 17, 2013.

48.
N. I. Eisenberger, M. D. Lieberman, and K. D. Williams, “Does Rejection Hurt? An fMRI Study of Social Exclusion,”
Science
302 (2003); N. I. Eisenberger and M. D. Lieberman, “Why Rejection Hurts: A Common Neural Alarm System for Physical and Social Pain,”
Trends in Cognitive Science
8, no. 7 (2004); David C. Geary,
The Origin of Mind: Evolution of Brain, Cognition and General Intelligence
(Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2005).

49.
Carrie L. Masten et al., “Neural Correlates of Social Exclusion during Adolescence: Understanding the Distress of Peer Rejection,”
Scan
4 (2009).

50.
Michael Tomasello,
Origins of Human Communication
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008); Alex Pentland, “To Signal Is Human: Real-Time Data Mining Unmasks the Power of Imitation, Kith and Charisma in Our Face to Face Social Networks,”
American Scientist
98 (2010).

51.
Pentland, “To Signal Is Human”; Alex Pentland,
Honest Signals: How They Shape Our World
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008).

52.
Leslie Seltzer, Toni Ziegler, and Seth Pollak, “Social Vocalizations Can Release Oxytocin in Humans,”
Proceedings of the Royal Society B
277 (2010); Sue C. Carter and Stephen W. Porges, “Social Bonding and Attachment,” in
Encyclopedia of Behavioural Neuroscience
, vol. 3 (New York: Elsevier, 2010).

53.
Leslie Seltzer et al., “Instant Messages vs. Speech: Hormones and Why We Still Need to Hear Each Other,”
Evolution and Human Behavior
33 (2012). Given that Amanda Lenhart, from the Pew Center, has shown that teens communicate more through texts than through any other medium, including in-person socializing, it is important to convey that texts don’t always do the trick. Amanda Lenhart,
Teens, Smartphones & Texting
(Washington, DC: Pew Internet and American Life Project, 2012).

54.
Ted Ruffman et al., “What Mothers Say and What They Do: The Relation between Parenting, Theory of Mind, Language and Conflict/Cooperation,”
British Journal of Developmental Psychology
24 (2006).

55.
Barbara Schneider and L. J. Waite, eds.,
Being Together, Working Apart
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

56.
B. Campos et al., “Opportunity for Interaction? A Naturalistic Observation Study of Dual-Earner Families after Work and School,”
Journal of Family Psychology
23, no. 6 (2009).

CHAPTER 7: TEENS AND SCREENS

1.
  Matt Richtel, “Growing Up Digital, Wired for Distraction,”
New York Times
, November 21, 2010.

2.
  Amanda Lenhart,
Teens, Smartphones & Texting
(Washington, DC: Pew Internet and American Life Project, 2012); Nielsen Company, “U.S. Teen Mobile Report Calling Yesterday, Texting Today, Using Apps Tomorrow,” Nielsen Newswire, October 14, 2010,
http://blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/online_mobile/u-s-teen-mobile-report-calling-yesterday-texting-today-using-apps-tomorrow/
.

3.
  Jack P. Shonkoff and Deborah A. Phillips, eds.,
From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development
(Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 2000).

4.
  Lee Rainie and Barry Wellman,
Networked: The New Social Operating System
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012); Clay Shirky,
Here Comes Everybody
(London: Allen Lane, 2008).

5.
  Elizabeth K. Englander, “Research Findings: MARC 2011 Survey Grades 3–12,”
MARC Research Reports
2 (2011); Amanda Lenhart, “Teens, Stranger Contact and Cyberbullying,” Pew Internet and American Life Project, April 30, 2008,
http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/sites/cyber.law.harvard.edu/files/Pew%20Internet%20teens.pdf
.

6.
  Sameer Hinduja and Justin Patchin, “Bullying, Cyberbullying, and Suicide,”
Archives of Suicide Research
14, no. 3 (2010).

7.
  Lenhart,
Teens, Smartphones & Texting
.

8.
  Sindy R. Sumter et al., “Developmental Trajectories of Peer Victimization: Off-Line and Online Experiences during Adolescence,”
Journal of Adolescent Health
50, no. 6 (2012).

9.
  Dan Hruschka,
Friendship: Development, Ecology, and Evolution of a
Relationship
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010).

10.
Sameer Hinduja and Justin Patchin, “Cyberbullying: An Exploratory Analysis of Factors Related to Offending and Victimization,”
Deviant Behavior
29 (2008).

11.
Shari Kessel Schneider et al., “Cyberbullying, School Bullying, and Psychological Distress: A Regional Census of High School Students,”
American Journal of Public Health
102, no. 1 (2012); Jing Wang, Ronald J. Iannotti, and Tonja Nansel, “School Bullying among Adolescents in the United States: Physical, Verbal, Relational, and Cyber,”
Journal of Adolescent Health
45, no. 4 (2009).

12.
David C. Geary, Benjamin Wingard, and Bo Winegard, “Reflections on the Evolution of Human Sex Differences: Social Selection and the Evolution of Competition among Women,” in
Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Sexual Psychology and Behavior
, ed. V. A. Weekes-Shackelford and T. K. Shackelford (New York: Springer, 2014).

13.
Wang, Iannotti, and Nansel, “School Bullying”; Joyce Benenson et al., “Under Threat of Exclusion, Females Exclude More than Males,”
Psychological Science
22, no. 4 (2011); Geary, Wingard, and Winegard, “Reflections on the Evolution of Human Sex Differences”; David C. Geary,
Male, Female: The Evolution of Human Sex Differences
(Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2010); Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin,
The Psychology of Sex Differences
(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1974); Susan Pinker,
The Sexual Paradox: Extreme Men, Gifted Women, and the Real Gender Gap
(Toronto: Random House Canada, 2008); Joyce Benenson et al., “Human Sexual Differences in the Use of Social Ostracism as a Competitive Tactic,”
International Journal of Primatology
29 (2008).

14.
Catherine Sebastian et al., “Social Brain Development and the Affective Consequences of Ostracism in Adolescence,”
Brain and Cognition
72 (2010).

15.
Dorothy L. Cheney and Robert M. Seyfarth,
Baboon Metaphysics: The Evolution of a Social Mind
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007).

16.
Linda Mealey,
Sex Differences: Developmental and Evolutionary Strategies
(San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2000); Pinker,
The Sexual Paradox
.

17.
Cheney and Seyfarth,
Baboon Metaphysics
. Thanks go to my son Carl for pointing out the interesting parallel between threat grunts and Facebook comments.

18.
Jaana Juvonen and Elisheva Gross, “Extending the School Grounds? Bullying Experiences in Cyberspace,”
Journal of School Health
78, no. 9 (2008).

19.
Jing Wang, Tonja Nansel, and Ronald J. Iannotti, “Cyber and Traditional Bullying: Diffferential Association with Depression,”
Journal of Adolescent Health
48, no. 4 (2011).

20.
According to researchers Sameer Hinduja and Justin Patchin, the bully’s most common online offense was “Posted something online about another person to make others laugh,” while the victim’s most common humiliating experience was “Received an upsetting email from someone you know.” These seem fairly common and anodyne online experiences, yet shockingly, 20% of those teens who sent or received such messages started to think about suicide. Hinduja and Patchin, “Bullying, Cyberbullying, and Suicide.”

21.
Frank Bruni, “Of Love and Fungus,”
New York Times
, July 21, 2013.

22.
R. Kraut et al., “Internet Paradox: A Social Technology that Reduces Social Involvement and Psychological Well-being?”
American Psychologist
53, no. 9 (1998).

23.
Patti M. Valkenburg and Jochen Peter, “Online Communication and Adolescent Well-being: Testing the Stimulation versus the Displacement Hypothesis,”
Journal of Computer Mediated Communication
12 (2007); “Preadolescents’ and Adolescents’ Online Communication and Their Closeness to Friends,”
Developmental Psychology
43, no. 2 (2007); “Social Consequences of the Internet for Adolescents: A Decade of Research,”
Current Directions in Psychological Science
18, no. 1 (2009); R. Kraut et al., “Internet Paradox Revisited,”
Journal of Social Issues
58, no. 1 (2002).