Tropic of Chaos (38 page)
Authors: Christian Parenti
5
On Africa the IPCC writes, “Warming is
very likely
to be larger than the global annual mean warming throughout the continent and in all seasons, with drier subtropical regions warming more than the moister tropics. Annual rainfall is
likely
to decrease in much of Mediterranean Africa and the northern Sahara, with a greater likelihood of decreasing rainfall as the Mediterranean coast is approached. Rainfall in southern Africa is
likely
to decrease in much of the winter rainfall region and western margins. There is
likely
to be an increase in annual mean rainfall in East Africa. It is unclear how rainfall in the Sahel, the Guinean Coast and the southern Sahara will evolve.” Susan Solomon, Dahe Qin, Martin Manning, and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I,
Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 850.
On Africa the IPCC writes, “Warming is
very likely
to be larger than the global annual mean warming throughout the continent and in all seasons, with drier subtropical regions warming more than the moister tropics. Annual rainfall is
likely
to decrease in much of Mediterranean Africa and the northern Sahara, with a greater likelihood of decreasing rainfall as the Mediterranean coast is approached. Rainfall in southern Africa is
likely
to decrease in much of the winter rainfall region and western margins. There is
likely
to be an increase in annual mean rainfall in East Africa. It is unclear how rainfall in the Sahel, the Guinean Coast and the southern Sahara will evolve.” Susan Solomon, Dahe Qin, Martin Manning, and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I,
Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 850.
6
Katharine Houreld, “Kenya: 10 Million Risk Hunger After Harvests Fail,” Associated Press, January 9, 2009.
Katharine Houreld, “Kenya: 10 Million Risk Hunger After Harvests Fail,” Associated Press, January 9, 2009.
8
The preceding section is based on James Hansen,
Storms of My Grandchildren: The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity
(New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2009); Bill McKibben,
Earth: Making a Life on a Tough New Planet
(New York: Henry Holt & Co., 2010); Tim Flannery,
The Weather Makers: How Man Is Changing the Climate and What It Means for Life on Earth
(New York: HarperCollins, 2006); Elizabeth Kolbert,
Field Notes from a Catastrophe: Man, Nature and Climate Change
(New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2006); Eugene Linden,
The Winds of Change: Climate, Weather, and the Destruction of Civilizations
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006); Al Gore,
Earth in the Balance
(New York: Plume, 1993); Al Gore,
An Inconvenient Truth
(New York: Rodale Books, 2006); George Monbiot,
Heat: How to Stop the Planet from Burning
(New York: Doubleday, 2006). Climate Change 2007:
Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis: Human and Natural Drivers of Climate Change, IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
(2007):
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/spmsspm-human-and.html
. For latest atmospheric CO
2
concentrations see
http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/
The preceding section is based on James Hansen,
Storms of My Grandchildren: The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity
(New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2009); Bill McKibben,
Earth: Making a Life on a Tough New Planet
(New York: Henry Holt & Co., 2010); Tim Flannery,
The Weather Makers: How Man Is Changing the Climate and What It Means for Life on Earth
(New York: HarperCollins, 2006); Elizabeth Kolbert,
Field Notes from a Catastrophe: Man, Nature and Climate Change
(New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2006); Eugene Linden,
The Winds of Change: Climate, Weather, and the Destruction of Civilizations
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006); Al Gore,
Earth in the Balance
(New York: Plume, 1993); Al Gore,
An Inconvenient Truth
(New York: Rodale Books, 2006); George Monbiot,
Heat: How to Stop the Planet from Burning
(New York: Doubleday, 2006). Climate Change 2007:
Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis: Human and Natural Drivers of Climate Change, IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
(2007):
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/spmsspm-human-and.html
. For latest atmospheric CO
2
concentrations see
http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/
9
“Towards a Goal for Climate Change Stabilisation,” ch. 13 (13.5) in
Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change
(Treasury of the Government of the UK, 2006).
“Towards a Goal for Climate Change Stabilisation,” ch. 13 (13.5) in
Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change
(Treasury of the Government of the UK, 2006).
10
Clive Hamilton, Charles Stuart Professor of Public Ethics, Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics at the Australian National University, “Is It Too Late to Prevent Catastrophic Climate Change?” (lecture to a meeting of the Royal Society of the Arts, Sydney, Australia, October 21, 2009), 11. Available at
www.clivehamilton.net.au
(accessed January 19, 2011).
Clive Hamilton, Charles Stuart Professor of Public Ethics, Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics at the Australian National University, “Is It Too Late to Prevent Catastrophic Climate Change?” (lecture to a meeting of the Royal Society of the Arts, Sydney, Australia, October 21, 2009), 11. Available at
www.clivehamilton.net.au
(accessed January 19, 2011).
11
Kevin Anderson et al, “From Long-Term Targets to Cumulative Emission Pathways : Reframing UK Climate Policy,”
Energy Policy
36, no. 10 (2008): 3714â3722.
Kevin Anderson et al, “From Long-Term Targets to Cumulative Emission Pathways : Reframing UK Climate Policy,”
Energy Policy
36, no. 10 (2008): 3714â3722.
12
For details on this activism, see the
350.org
website (
www.350.org
). Hassen's paper can be found at J. Hansen et al., “Target Atmospheric CO2: Where Should Humanity Aim?” Cornell University Library, October 15, 2008,
http://arxiv.org/abs/0804.1126
.
For details on this activism, see the
350.org
website (
www.350.org
). Hassen's paper can be found at J. Hansen et al., “Target Atmospheric CO2: Where Should Humanity Aim?” Cornell University Library, October 15, 2008,
http://arxiv.org/abs/0804.1126
.
13
For a review of the literature and its research methods, see Nils Petter Gleditsch, “Armed Conflict and the Environment: A Critique of the Literature,”
Journal of Peace Research
35, no. 3 (May 1998): 381â400.
For a review of the literature and its research methods, see Nils Petter Gleditsch, “Armed Conflict and the Environment: A Critique of the Literature,”
Journal of Peace Research
35, no. 3 (May 1998): 381â400.
15
This debate is covered very well in Adanoo Wario Roba and Karen M. Witsenburg,
Surviving Pastoral Decline: Pastoral Sedentarization, Natural Resource Management and Livelihood Diversification in Marsabit District, Northern Kenya
(Lampeter, PA: Edwin Mellen Press, 2008), 735.
This debate is covered very well in Adanoo Wario Roba and Karen M. Witsenburg,
Surviving Pastoral Decline: Pastoral Sedentarization, Natural Resource Management and Livelihood Diversification in Marsabit District, Northern Kenya
(Lampeter, PA: Edwin Mellen Press, 2008), 735.
16
Val Percival and Thomas Homer-Dixon, “Environmental Scarcity and Violent Conflict: The Case of South Africa,”
Journal of Peace Research
35, no. 3 (May 1998): 279â298: 281.
Val Percival and Thomas Homer-Dixon, “Environmental Scarcity and Violent Conflict: The Case of South Africa,”
Journal of Peace Research
35, no. 3 (May 1998): 279â298: 281.
17
Kennedy Agade Mkutu,
Guns and Governance in the Rift Valley: Pastoral Conflict and Small Arms
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008), 7.
Kennedy Agade Mkutu,
Guns and Governance in the Rift Valley: Pastoral Conflict and Small Arms
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008), 7.
18
David Anderson, “Stock Theft and Moral Economy in Colonial Kenya,”
Africa: Journal of the International African Institute
56, no. 4 (1986): 399â416: 406.
David Anderson, “Stock Theft and Moral Economy in Colonial Kenya,”
Africa: Journal of the International African Institute
56, no. 4 (1986): 399â416: 406.
19
Anderson, “Stock Theft,” 408; for discussion of a similar process in Tanzania, see Michael L. Fleisher, “Kuria Cattle Raiding: Capitalist Transformation, Commoditization, and Crime Formation Among an East African Agro-Pastoral People,”
Comparative Studies in Society and History
42, no. 4 (October 2000): 745â769.
Chapter 6Anderson, “Stock Theft,” 408; for discussion of a similar process in Tanzania, see Michael L. Fleisher, “Kuria Cattle Raiding: Capitalist Transformation, Commoditization, and Crime Formation Among an East African Agro-Pastoral People,”
Comparative Studies in Society and History
42, no. 4 (October 2000): 745â769.
1
J. Forbes Munro, “Shipping Subsidies and Railway Guarantees: William Mackinnon, Eastern Africa and the Indian Ocean, 1860â93,”
Journal of African History
28, no. 2 (1987): 209â230: 210. Munro forcefully argues against the lame, very typical apologias that would have Mackinnon going to Africa out of noneconomic interests. In fact, the company was run by shipowners and merchants who stood to gain from expanded trade due to opening East Africa, even if the company itself were bankrupted.
J. Forbes Munro, “Shipping Subsidies and Railway Guarantees: William Mackinnon, Eastern Africa and the Indian Ocean, 1860â93,”
Journal of African History
28, no. 2 (1987): 209â230: 210. Munro forcefully argues against the lame, very typical apologias that would have Mackinnon going to Africa out of noneconomic interests. In fact, the company was run by shipowners and merchants who stood to gain from expanded trade due to opening East Africa, even if the company itself were bankrupted.
2
Quoted in G. H. Mungeam, “Masai and Kikuyu Responses to the Establishment of British Administration in the East Africa Protectorate,”
Journal of African History
11, no. 1 (1970): 127â143: 136.
Quoted in G. H. Mungeam, “Masai and Kikuyu Responses to the Establishment of British Administration in the East Africa Protectorate,”
Journal of African History
11, no. 1 (1970): 127â143: 136.
3
R. B. Buckley, “Colonization and Irrigation in the East Africa Protectorate,”
The Geographical Journal
21, no. 4 (April 1903): 349â371: 350, 355â356.
R. B. Buckley, “Colonization and Irrigation in the East Africa Protectorate,”
The Geographical Journal
21, no. 4 (April 1903): 349â371: 350, 355â356.
4
John Lonsdale and Bruce Berman, “Coping with the Contradictions: The Development of the Colonial State in Kenya, 1895â1914,”
Journal of African History
20, no. 4 (1979): 487â505.
John Lonsdale and Bruce Berman, “Coping with the Contradictions: The Development of the Colonial State in Kenya, 1895â1914,”
Journal of African History
20, no. 4 (1979): 487â505.
5
J. M. Lonsdale, “The Politics of Conquest: The British in Western Kenya, 1894â1908,”
The Historical Journal
20, no. 4 (December 1977): 841â870: 851.
J. M. Lonsdale, “The Politics of Conquest: The British in Western Kenya, 1894â1908,”
The Historical Journal
20, no. 4 (December 1977): 841â870: 851.
6
As Lonsdale and Berman put it in “Coping with the Contradictions,” “Late-nineteenth-century imperialism in Africa was the final sortie by which the world capitalist system captured the last continent to remain partially beyond its pale. The system was comprised, then as now, of a hierarchy of many differing modes of production linked at the level of exchange and all under the domination of the most advanced forms of capital, whether that was based in the formally responsible imperial power or in one of its industrial rivals” (486).
As Lonsdale and Berman put it in “Coping with the Contradictions,” “Late-nineteenth-century imperialism in Africa was the final sortie by which the world capitalist system captured the last continent to remain partially beyond its pale. The system was comprised, then as now, of a hierarchy of many differing modes of production linked at the level of exchange and all under the domination of the most advanced forms of capital, whether that was based in the formally responsible imperial power or in one of its industrial rivals” (486).
7
Lonsdale, “The Politics of Conquest.”
Lonsdale, “The Politics of Conquest.”
8
Lonsdale and Berman, “Coping with the Contradictions.”
Lonsdale and Berman, “Coping with the Contradictions.”
9
Colin Leys,
Underdevelopment in Kenya: The Political Economy of Neo-Colonialism
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975).
Colin Leys,
Underdevelopment in Kenya: The Political Economy of Neo-Colonialism
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975).
10
Frank Corfield,
The Origins and Growth of Mau Mau: An Historical Survey
(Nairobi: Government of Kenya, 1960).
Frank Corfield,
The Origins and Growth of Mau Mau: An Historical Survey
(Nairobi: Government of Kenya, 1960).
11
Caroline Elkins,
Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain's Gulag in Kenya
(New York: Owl Books, 2005).
Caroline Elkins,
Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain's Gulag in Kenya
(New York: Owl Books, 2005).
12
David Anderson, “Stock Theft and Moral Economy in Colonial Kenya,”
Africa: Journal of the International Af rican Institute
56, no. 4 (1986): 399â416: 405.
David Anderson, “Stock Theft and Moral Economy in Colonial Kenya,”
Africa: Journal of the International Af rican Institute
56, no. 4 (1986): 399â416: 405.
13
On colonial and postindependence efforts to create law and order in development among pastoralists, see Fratkin, “East African Pastoralism”; for clear argument that raiding has increased since 1980, see Dr. Paul Goldsmith,
Conceptualizing the Costs of Pastoralist Conflicts in Northern Kenya
(Cemiride, Kenya: The Center for Minority Rights Development, March 2005). Attempts to turn nomadic pastoralists into more sedentary ranchers and agriculturalists are, unfortunately, associated with rapid soil degradation.
On colonial and postindependence efforts to create law and order in development among pastoralists, see Fratkin, “East African Pastoralism”; for clear argument that raiding has increased since 1980, see Dr. Paul Goldsmith,
Conceptualizing the Costs of Pastoralist Conflicts in Northern Kenya
(Cemiride, Kenya: The Center for Minority Rights Development, March 2005). Attempts to turn nomadic pastoralists into more sedentary ranchers and agriculturalists are, unfortunately, associated with rapid soil degradation.
17
Patrick Chabal and Jean-Pascal Daloz,
Africa Works: Disorder As a Political Instrument
(Oxford: University of Indiana Press/International African Institute, 1999), 15.
Patrick Chabal and Jean-Pascal Daloz,
Africa Works: Disorder As a Political Instrument
(Oxford: University of Indiana Press/International African Institute, 1999), 15.
19
“US Senate Votes to Lift Economic Sanctions That Had Been Applied Against Uganda During Former Pres Idi Amin's Reign,”
New York Times
, May 8, 1979; “Conflict Between Uganda Pres Amin and US over Amin's Order Forbidding Americans to Leave,”
New York Times
, March 6, 1977.
“US Senate Votes to Lift Economic Sanctions That Had Been Applied Against Uganda During Former Pres Idi Amin's Reign,”
New York Times
, May 8, 1979; “Conflict Between Uganda Pres Amin and US over Amin's Order Forbidding Americans to Leave,”
New York Times
, March 6, 1977.
20
“When a State Goes Insane,”
New York Times,
May 2, 1979; “Fall of Idi Amin”; John Darton, “Invaders in Uganda Close In on Capital,”
New York Times
, April 5, 1979.
“When a State Goes Insane,”
New York Times,
May 2, 1979; “Fall of Idi Amin”; John Darton, “Invaders in Uganda Close In on Capital,”
New York Times
, April 5, 1979.
22
Mustafa Mirzeler and Crawford Young, “Pastoral Politics in the Northeast Periphery in Uganda: AKâ47 As Change Agent,”
Journal of Modern Af rican Studies
38, no. 3 (September 2000): 407â429: 416.
Mustafa Mirzeler and Crawford Young, “Pastoral Politics in the Northeast Periphery in Uganda: AKâ47 As Change Agent,”
Journal of Modern Af rican Studies
38, no. 3 (September 2000): 407â429: 416.
23
Barry Shilachter, “Ugandan Warriors Becoming Dirt Farmers in Settlement Scheme,” Associated Press, August 4, 1985.
Barry Shilachter, “Ugandan Warriors Becoming Dirt Farmers in Settlement Scheme,” Associated Press, August 4, 1985.
24
Jayne, “African Apocalypse.”
Jayne, “African Apocalypse.”
25
David Crary, “Well-Armed Cattle Raiders Terrorize East African Villages,”
AP Online
, November 17, 1986.
David Crary, “Well-Armed Cattle Raiders Terrorize East African Villages,”
AP Online
, November 17, 1986.
28
On guns, see Mirzeler and Young, “Pastoral Politics in the Northeast Periphery”; on drought, see Elliot Fratkin, “East African Pastoralism in Transition: Maasai, Boran, and Rendille Cases,”
African Studies Review
44, no. 3 (December 2001): 1â25: 8.
On guns, see Mirzeler and Young, “Pastoral Politics in the Northeast Periphery”; on drought, see Elliot Fratkin, “East African Pastoralism in Transition: Maasai, Boran, and Rendille Cases,”
African Studies Review
44, no. 3 (December 2001): 1â25: 8.
29
Jayne, “African Apocalypse.”
Jayne, “African Apocalypse.”
30
Jayne, “African Apocalypse,” 417.
Chapter 7Jayne, “African Apocalypse,” 417.
1
I. M. Lewis,
Blood and Bones: The Call of Kinship in Somali Society
(Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1994), 150; I. M. Lewis, “Somalia Nationalism Turned Inside Out,”
MERIP Reports
, no. 106 (June 1982); I. M. Lewis,
A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa
(London: Oxford University Press, 1962); I. M. Lewis,
The Modern History of Somaliland: From Nation to State
(New York: F. A. Praeger, 1965); David D. Laitin and Said S. Samatar,
Somalia: A Nation in Search of a State
(Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987); Abdi Ismail Samatar, “Destruction of State and Society in Somalia: Beyond the Tribal Convention,”
The Journal of Modern African Studies
30, no. 4 (December 1992): 625â641.
I. M. Lewis,
Blood and Bones: The Call of Kinship in Somali Society
(Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1994), 150; I. M. Lewis, “Somalia Nationalism Turned Inside Out,”
MERIP Reports
, no. 106 (June 1982); I. M. Lewis,
A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa
(London: Oxford University Press, 1962); I. M. Lewis,
The Modern History of Somaliland: From Nation to State
(New York: F. A. Praeger, 1965); David D. Laitin and Said S. Samatar,
Somalia: A Nation in Search of a State
(Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987); Abdi Ismail Samatar, “Destruction of State and Society in Somalia: Beyond the Tribal Convention,”
The Journal of Modern African Studies
30, no. 4 (December 1992): 625â641.
3
Robert G. Patman,
The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa: The Diplomacy of Intervention and Disengagement
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 49.
Robert G. Patman,
The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa: The Diplomacy of Intervention and Disengagement
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 49.
4
Gian Carlo Pajetta, “Interview on Ethiopia and Somalia,”
New Left Review
1, no. 107 (JanuaryâFebruary 1978): 43â45; Emilio Sarzi Amade, “Ethiopia's Troubled Road,”
New Left Review
1, no. 107 (JanuaryâFebruary 1978): 40â43.
Gian Carlo Pajetta, “Interview on Ethiopia and Somalia,”
New Left Review
1, no. 107 (JanuaryâFebruary 1978): 43â45; Emilio Sarzi Amade, “Ethiopia's Troubled Road,”
New Left Review
1, no. 107 (JanuaryâFebruary 1978): 40â43.
7
Piero Gleijeses,
Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959â1976
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002). This book is a truly impressive accomplishment, based on ten years of research using declassified US intelligence, interviews with principal players, and, most importantly, vaults of never before revealed
Cuban documents from the Communist Party Central Committee, armed forces, and foreign ministry.
Piero Gleijeses,
Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959â1976
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002). This book is a truly impressive accomplishment, based on ten years of research using declassified US intelligence, interviews with principal players, and, most importantly, vaults of never before revealed
Cuban documents from the Communist Party Central Committee, armed forces, and foreign ministry.
9
David B. Ottaway, “Soviets Said to Press Somalia for Cease-Fire in Ethiopia,”
Washington Post
, August 4, 1977; Gebru Tareke, “The Ethiopia-Somalia War of 1977 Revisited,”
The International Journal of African Historical Studies
33, no. 3 (2000): 635â667: 642.
David B. Ottaway, “Soviets Said to Press Somalia for Cease-Fire in Ethiopia,”
Washington Post
, August 4, 1977; Gebru Tareke, “The Ethiopia-Somalia War of 1977 Revisited,”
The International Journal of African Historical Studies
33, no. 3 (2000): 635â667: 642.
11
David Ottoway, “Soviet Wooing of Ethiopia May Push Somalia Toward U.S.,”
Washington Post
, February 28, 1977; Murrey Marder, “Soviets: Carter Distorted Role in Somalia,”
Washington Post
, January 14, 1978; “Cuba, Somalia to Resume Diplomatic Relations,” Xinhua General News Service, August 1, 1989.
David Ottoway, “Soviet Wooing of Ethiopia May Push Somalia Toward U.S.,”
Washington Post
, February 28, 1977; Murrey Marder, “Soviets: Carter Distorted Role in Somalia,”
Washington Post
, January 14, 1978; “Cuba, Somalia to Resume Diplomatic Relations,” Xinhua General News Service, August 1, 1989.
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