A Quiet Revolution (52 page)

Chapter
3
. The
1970
s

1. See Derek Hopwood,
   Egypt: Politics and Society,
   1945
   –
   90
   (London: Routledge,
   1991
   ),
   117
   –
   18
   ; and Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot,
   A Short History of Modern Egypt
   (New York: Cambridge University Press,
   1985
   ),
   137
   –
   38
   .
   

2. John L. Esposito, “Contemporary Islam: Reform or Revolution?” in
   Oxford His- tory of Islam,
   ed. John L. Esposito (New York: Oxford University Press,
   1999
   ),
   657
   . See also Gilles Kepel,
   Muslim Extremism in Egypt: The Prophet and Pharaoh,
   trans. Jon Rothschild, With a New Preface for
   2003
   (Berkeley: University of California Press,
   2003
   ),
   137
   –
   38
   .
   

3. Joel Beinin and Joe Stork, eds.,
   Political Islam: Essays from Middle East Report
   

   (Berkeley: University of California Press,
   1997
   ),
   9
   –
   11
   .
   

4. See Ghada Hashem Talhami,
   The Mobilization of Muslim Women in Egypt
   (Gainesville: University Press of Florida,
   1996
   ),
   63
   . Esposito wrote, “From Egypt to In- donesia, Islamic movements and organizations created alternative educational, medical, legal and social services (schools, clinics, hospitals, youth centers, and legal aid societies, for example), publishing houses, and financial institutions” (“Contemporary Islam,”
   667
   ).
   

5. Saad Eddin Ibrahim, “Egypt’s Islamic Activism in the
   1980
   s,”
   Third World Quar-
   

   terly
   10
   , no.
   2
   (April
   1988
   ):
   644
   . See also Fawaz A. Gerges,
   The Far Enemy: Why Jihad Went Global
   (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
   2005
   ),
   2
   –
   3
   .
   

6. Ibrahim, “Egypt’s Islamic Activism,”
   644
   .
   

7. See Yvonne Y. Haddad, “Sayyid Qutb: Ideologue of the Islamic Revival,” in John
   ‌
   

   L. Esposito, ed.,
   Voices of Resurgent Islam
   (New York: Oxford University Press,
   1983
   ),
   85
   .
   

8. Haddad, “Sayyid Qutb,”
   85
   .
   

9. Cited in Haddad, “Sayyid Qutb,”
   85
   . See also the discussion of Qutb and jahiliyya in Kepel,
   Muslim Extremism,
   12
   –
   13
   ,
   61
   –
   63
   .
   

10. Sayed Qutb,
    Milestones
    (Cedar Rapids, Iowa: Unity, n.d.),
    20
    .
    

11. Quotations in this and the following paragraph are from Haddad, “Sayyid Qutb,”
    70
    ,
    87
    –
    89
    .
    

12. Adnan A. Musallam,
    From Secularism to Jihad: Sayyid Qutb and the Foundations of Radical Islamism
    (Westport, Conn.: Praeger,
    2005
    ),
    179
    –
    80
    .
    

13. See Barbara H. E. Zollner,
    The Muslim Brotherhood: Hasan al-Hudaybi and Ideology
    (London: Routledge,
    2009
    ),
    3
    . See also Kepel,
    Muslim Extremism,
    61
    –
    63
    .
    

14. Talhami,
    Mobilization,
    63
    .
    

15. Gerges,
    Far Enemy,
    2
    –
    3
    .
    

16. Zainab al-Ghazali,
    Return of the Pharaoh: Memoir in Nasir’s Prison,
    trans. Mokrane Guezzou (Leicester: Islamic Foundation,
    1994
    /
    1415
    AH),
    40
    . This is the trans- lation I cite throughout. I give throughout, too, page references to the Arabic text. Zainab al-Ghazali,
    Ayam min Hayati, Dar al-Shuruq,
    10
    th ed. (Cairo,
    1988
    ),
    38
    . According to Kepel,
    Muslim Extremism,
    al-Ghazali stood at the other extreme from the young advo- cates of violence to overthrow the Nasser regime, arguing that the best they could do would be to establish “educational programmes” (
    31
    ).
    

17. Al-Ghazali,
    Return of the Pharaoh,
    41
    ;
    Ayam min Hayati,
    39
    –
    40
    .
    

18. Carrie Rosefsky Wickham,
    Mobilizing Islam: Religion, Activism, and Political Change in Egypt
    (New York: Columbia University Press,
    2002
    ),
    127
    .
    

19. Kepel,
    Muslim Extremism,
    29
    –
    31
    .
    

20. Talhami,
    Mobilization,
    63
    –
    64
    .
    

21. Ibrahim, “Egypt’s Islamic Activism,”
    642
    –
    43
    . See also Esposito, “Contempo- rary Islam,”
    667
    .
    

22. Esposito, “Contemporary Islam,”
    667
    .
    

1. See al-Sayyid Marsot,
   Short History,
   134
   –
   36
   ; and John Waterbury,
   Egypt: Bur- dens of the Past, Options for the Future
   (Bloomington: Indiana University Press in asso- ciation with the American Universities Field Staff,
   1978
   ),
   151
   . See also Saad Eddin Ibrahim,
   The New Arab Social Order: A Study of the Social Impact of Oil Wealth
   (Boulder, Colo.: Westview; London: Croom Helm,
   1982
   ),
   18
   .
   

2. Ahmed,
   Women and Gender,
   219
   .
   

3. Fadwa El Guindi, “Veiling Infitah with Muslim Ethic: Egypt’s Contemporary Islamic Movement,”
   Social Problems
   28
   , no.
   4
   (April
   1981
   ):
   476
   .
   

4. Known collectively as
   al-Gamaa al-Islamiyya
   . Wickham,
   Mobilizing Islam,
   96
   ; Esposito, “Contemporary Islam,”
   657
   .
   

5. Wickham,
   Mobilizing Islam,
   116
   

6. El Guindi, “Veiling Infitah,”
   479
   –
   80
   .
   

7. Ahmed,
   Women and Gender,
   219
   .
   

8. Gilles Kepel,
   Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam,
   trans. Anthony F. Roberts (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,
   2000
   ),
   63
   .
   

9. Esposito, “Contemporary Islam,”
   657
   .
   

10. Fadwa El Guindi, “The Emerging Islamic Order: The Case of Egypt’s Con- temporary Islamic Movement,”
    Journal of Arab Affairs
    1
    , no.
    2
    (
    1982
    ):
    253
    .
    

11. El Guindi sets forth much of this material in three articles in particular: “Veil- ing Infitah” and “The Emerging Islamic Order,” both mentioned above, and “Religious Revival and Islamic Survival in Egypt,”
    International Insight
    1
    , no.
    2
    (
    1980
    ):
    6
    –
    10
    .
    

12. El Guindi, “Religious Revival,”
    8
    .
    

13. Talhami,
    Mobilization,
    48
    .
    

14. El Guindi, “Veiling Infitah,”
    475
    .
    

15. Talhami,
    Mobilization,
    59
    –
    60
    ; Kepel,
    Jihad,
    84
    –
    85
    .
    

16. El Guindi, “Emerging Islamic Order,”
    256
    .
    

17. Material in this and the following paragraph is from El Guindi, “Veiling Infi- tah,”
    376
    ,
    474
    –
    75
    .
    

18. El Guindi, “Emerging Islamic Order,”
    253
    –
    54
    .
    

19. Fadwa El Guindi,
    Veil: Modesty, Privacy, and Resistance
    (New York: Berg, Ox- ford International,
    1999
    ),
    161
    .
    

20. El Guindi,
    Veil,
    168
    , and “Veiling Infitah,”
    470
    .
    

21. Material in this and the following paragraph are from Talhami,
    Mobilization,
    

    43
    –
    44
    ,
    54
    .
    

22. John Alden Williams, “Return of the Veil in Egypt,”
    Middle East Review
    11
    (Spring
    1979
    ):
    53
    ; Sherifa Zuhur,
    Revealing Reveiling: Islamic Gender Ideology in Contem- porary Egypt
    (Albany: State University of New York Press,
    1992
    ),
    77
    ,
    104
    .
    

23. Quotations in this and the following four paragraphs are from Williams, “Re- turn of the Veil,”
    49
    –
    53
    .
    

24. Williams, “Return of the Veil,”
    50
    –
    51
    ; John Alden Williams, “Veiling in Egypt as a Political and Social Phenomenon,” in John L. Esposito, ed.,
    Islam and Development Religion and Sociopolitical Change
    (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press,
    1980
    ),
    75
    .
    

25. This and the following quotation are from El Guindi, “Veiling Infitah,”
    383
    ,
    

    481
    .
    

26. Quotations in this and the following five paragraphs are from Williams, “Re-
    

    turn of the Veil,”
    53
    –
    54
    .
    

27. Zainab Abdel Mejid Radwan,
    Thahirat al-Hijab bayn al-Jam‘iyyat (
    Cairo: Al- Markaz al-Qawmi lil-Buhuth al-Ijtima‘iyya,
    1982
    ),
    92
    . See also
    Thahirat al-Hijab bayn al-Jam‘iyyat, al-Taqrir al-Thani
    (Cairo: Al-Markaz al-Qawmi lil-Buhuth al-Ijtima‘iyah, Wahdat al-Buhuth al-Diniyah wa al-Mu‘taqadat,
    1984
    .
    

28. Ekram Beshir, “Allah Doesn’t Change the Condition of People Until They Change Themselves,” in Katherine Bullock, ed.,
    Muslim Women Activists in North Amer- ica: Speaking for Ourselves
    (Austin: University of Texas Press,
    2005
    ),
    24
    . All quotations in the ensuing paragraphs of this chapter are from this text, pp.
    22
    –
    26
    .
    

Chapter
4
. The New Veil

1. Gilles Kepel,
   Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam,
   trans. Anthony F. Roberts (Cam- bridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,
   2000
   ),
   69
   .
   

2. Natana J. Delong-Bas,
   Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad
   ‌
   

   (New York: Oxford University Press,
   2004
   ),
   24
   –
   26
   .
   

3. Kepel,
   Jihad,
   70
   –
   73
   .
   

4. Kepel,
   Jihad,
   72
   .
   

5. Gilles Kepel,
   The War for Muslim Minds: Islam and the West,
   trans. Pascale Ghazaleh (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,
   2004
   ),
   173
   .
   

6. See Olivier Roy,
   The Failure of Political Islam,
   trans. by Carol Volk (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
   1994
   ;
   5
   th printing,
   2001
   ),
   117
   ; Brynjar Lia,
   The Society of the Muslim Brothers in Egypt
   (Reading: Garner,
   1998
   ),
   25
   ,
   59
   –
   60
   .
   

7. Material cited in this and the following two paragraphs is from Lia,
   Society,
   76
   ,
   86
   ,
   286
   .
   

8. Roy,
   Failure,
   36
   , and
   208
   n
   4
   .
   

9. Roy,
   Failure,
   21
   .
   

10. Carrie Rosefsky Wickham,
    Mobilizing Islam: Religion, Activism, and Political Change in Egypt
    (New York: Columbia University Press,
    2002
    ),
    96
    .
    

11. Kepel,
    Jihad,
    71
    .
    

12. “Egyptians in the Gulf countries experienced a cultural transformation and began to associate the new abundance and wealth with Islamic practices and even with the Islamic outer dress.” Ghada Hashem Talhami,
    The Mobilization of Muslim Women in Egypt
    (Gainesville: University Press of Florida,
    1996
    ),
    40
    –
    41
    .
    

13. Wickham,
    Mobilizing Islam,
    98
    .
    

14. Gilles Kepel,
    Muslim Extremism in Egypt: The Prophet and Pharaoh,
    trans. Jon Rothschild, With a New Preface for
    2003
    (Berkeley: University of California Press,
    2003
    ),
    139
    ; Kepel,
    Jihad,
    81
    .
    

15. Kepel,
    Jihad,
    73
    .
    

16. See Fauzi M. Najjar, “The Debate on Islam and Secularism in Egypt,”
    Arab Studies Quarterly
    18
    , no.
    2
    (Spring
    1996
    ).
    

17. Material cited in this and the following three paragraphs is from Kepel,
    Mus- lim Extremism,
    149
    –
    50
    ,
    192
    –
    93
    ,
    210
    –
    14
    .
    

18. Quoted in Adnan A. Musallam,
    From Secularism to Jihad: Sayyid Qutb and the Foundations of Radical Islamism
    (Westport, Conn.: Praeger,
    2005
    ),
    167
    .
    

19. Sayed Qutb,
    Milestones
    (Cedar Rapids, Iowa: Unity, n.d),
    7
    –
    9
    .
    

20. Musallam,
    From Secularism,
    155
    .
    

21. Roxanne L. Euben and Muhammad Qasim Zaman, eds.,
    Princeton Readings in Islamist Thought: Texts and Contexts from al-Banna to Bin Laden
    (Princeton, N.J.: Prince- ton University Press,
    2009
    ),
    275
    ,
    129
    .
    

22. Yvonne Y. Haddad, “Sayyid Qutb: Ideologue of the Islamic Revival,” in John L.
    

    Esposito, ed.,
    Voices of Resurgent Islam
    (New York: Oxford University Press,
    1983
    ),
    81
    ,
    68
    .
    

23. J. Brugman,
    An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt
    

    (Leiden: Brill,
    1984
    ),
    126
    .
    

24. Haddad, “Qutb,”
    69
    .
    

25. Musallam,
    From Secularism,
    86
    .
    

26. Sayyid Qutb,
    A Child from the Village,
    ed., trans., and introduced by John
    

    Calvert and William Shepard (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press,
    2004
    ), xviii–xix. See also Euben and Zaman,
    Princeton Readings,
    130
    .
    

27. Quotations in this and the following paragraph are from Musallam,
    From Sec- ularism,
    97
    ,
    122
    –
    29
    .
    

28. Roxanne L. Euben,
    Enemy in the Mirror: Islamic Fundamentalism and the Lim- its of Modern Rationalism
    (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,
    1999
    ),
    65
    .
    

29. Quotations in this and the following paragraph are from Lamia Rustum She- hadeh,
    The Idea of Women in Fundamentalist Islam
    (Gainesville: University Press of Florida,
    2003
    ),
    68
    –
    70
    .
    

30. Kepel,
    War for Muslim Minds,
    174
    –
    75
    .
    

31. Quotations in this and the following two paragraphs are from Euben and Zaman,
    Princeton Readings,
    276
    ,
    283
    –
    290
    .
    

32. This organization, the Association of Muslim Youth (Jam‘iyyat Shubban al- Muslimin), commonly called the YMMA, was founded in
    1927
    . Thought of as the “Mus- lim answer to the YMCA,” it was “more militant in its orientation than its constitution professed.” Euben and Zaman,
    Princeton Readings,
    289
    n
    14
    .
    

33. Material in this and the following three paragraphs is from Euben and Zaman,
    

    Princeton Readings,
    289
    –
    92
    .
    

34. Talhami,
    Mobilization,
    51
    ; Zainab al-Ghazali,
    Return of the Pharaoh: Memoir in Nasir’s Prison,
    trans. Mokrane Guezzou Leicester, Islamic Foundation,
    1994
    /
    1415
    AH),
    39
    –
    40
    ; Zainab al-Ghazali,
    Ayam min Hayati,
    10
    th ed. (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq,
    1988
    ),
    39
    .
    

35. Euben and Zaman,
    Princeton Readings,
    297
    .
    

36. Valerie J. Hoffman-Ladd, “Ghazali, Zaynab al-,”
    The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World,
    Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com
    

    /article/opr/t
    236
    /e
    273
    . Accessed July
    3
    ,
    2010
    .
    

37. Euben and Zaman,
    Princeton Readings,
    277
    . The material cited in the follow- ing paragraph also is from this book (
    280
    –
    81
    ).
    

38. Quotations in this and the following two paragraphs are from Kristin Hel- more, “Islam and Women: An Egyptian Speaks Out,”
    Christian Science Monitor,
    No- vember
    26
    ,
    1985
    .
    

39. Leila Ahmed,
    Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate
    

    (New Haven: Yale University Press,
    1992
    ),
    200
    ; Euben and Zaman,
    Princeton Readings,
    280
    .
    

40. Al-Ghazali,
    Return of the Pharaoh,
    38
    ;
    Ayam,
    35
    .
    

41. Al-Ghazali,
    Return of the Pharaoh,
    134
    ; Ayam,
    144
    .
    

42. Euben and Zaman,
    Princeton Readings,
    280
    .
    

43. As Talhami noted, al-Ghazali refers to herself in her memoir as part of the van- guard. Talhami,
    Mobilization,
    70
    . See also al-Ghazali,
    Return of the Pharaoh,
    133
    –
    4
    ;
    Ayam,
    143
    –
    44
    .
    

44. This and the quotation below are from Hoffman-Ladd, “Ghazali, Zaynab al-.”
    

45. See Janet Afary and Kevin B. Anderson,
    Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seductions of Islamism
    (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
    2005
    ).