Been in the Storm So Long (131 page)

85.
Stephenson,
Race Distinctions in American Law
, 208–09;
American Freedman
, I (July 1866), 59; William H. Dixon,
New America
(2 vols.; London, 1867), II, 330–32; Reid,
After the War
, 386n., 421; Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 293;
Richmond Enquirer
, Sept. 7, 1867, as quoted in Taylor,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Virginia
, 52–53.

86.
New Orleans Tribune
, May 16, 1867;
New York Times
, Feb. 25, March 5, 1866; Taylor,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Virginia
, 53–54;
Colored American
, Dec. 30, 1865.

87.
Wharton,
Negro in Mississippi
, 232–33;
The Confederate Records of the State of Georgia
(5 vols.; Atlanta, 1909), IV, 568; Trowbridge,
The South
, 161. For a denial of discrimination in “lunatic asylums” in New Orleans, see
New Orleans Tribune
, Oct. 19, 1866.

88.
Loyal Georgian
, July 6, 1867;
New Orleans Tribune
, Aug. 8, 1865; Williamson,
After Slavery
, 275–76.

89.
New Orleans Tribune
, May 5, 1867. For agitation in other cities, see, e.g.,
Loyal Georgian
, July 6, 1867 (Savannah);
Christian Recorder
, June 2, 1866 (Baltimore);
New York Times
, July 9, 1867 (Mobile), May 27, 1867 (Nashville).

90.
S. W. Ramsay, Office of the Charleston City Railway Company, Report of the Board of Directors, April 29, 1867, and John S. Riggs to R. K. Scott, May 3, 1867, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau;
New Orleans Tribune
, May 5, 28, 1867;
New York Times
, Jan. 7, March 27, 28, April 2, 5, May 27, 1867; Swint (ed.),
Dear Ones at Home
, 221, 225; Williamson,
After Slavery
, 281–63.

91.
WPA,
Negro in Virginia
, 241–42; Taylor,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Virginia
, 52;
New York Times
, May 1, 4, 8, 1867;
New Orleans Tribune
, July 8, 1867. For litigation and rulings by Union officers, see
New Orleans Tribune
, May 8, July 7, 1867;
Freedman’s Press
, July 18, 1868;
National Freedman
, I (Dec. 15, 1865), 362;
New York Times
, April 21, 22, May 18, June 19, July 10, Aug. 21, Sept. 8, 21, 1867.

92.
New Orleans Tribune
, Jan. 13, Feb. 28, May 21, June 25, Aug. 8, 20, 25, 29, 31, Sept. 1, 1865, April 30, May 1, 4, 7, 8, 9, 1867;
New York Times
, Nov. 5, 20, 1862, May 8, 16, 1867; J. C. Reid, Superintendent of the New Orleans and Carrollton Railroad Company, New Orleans, to Hon. E. Heath, Mayor of New Orleans, May 5, 1867, Pierre G. T. Beauregard Papers, Louisiana State Univ.

93.
Macrae,
Americans at Home
, 297.

94.
Trowbridge,
The South
, 352–53.

95.
Chesnut,
Diary from Dixie
, 21–22.

96.
New York Times
, Sept. 17, 1865;
New Orleans Tribune
, Aug. 15, 1865; 39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part II, 56.

97.
De Forest,
Union Officer in the Reconstruction
, 132;
Christian Recorder
, Feb. 24, 1866. Turner’s remarks were also printed in
Colored American
, Jan. 13, 1866. For similar sentiments, see
Christian Recorder
, Aug. 27, 1864, Feb. 18, 1865.

98.
Colored American
, Jan. 6, 1866.

99.
Avary,
Dixie after the War
, 377;
New York Times
, Feb. 4, 1866; Edmund Rhett to Maj. Gen. Scott, Aug. 12, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.

100.
Andrews,
War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl
, 223; Ravenel,
Private Journal
, 246. For similar expressions of alarm over the stationing of black troops in their vicinity, see Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 32–33;
National Freedman
, I (Sept. 15, 1865), 264; Swint (ed.),
Dear Ones at Home
, 170; Andrews,
War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl
, 231–32, 263–64, 338; D. E. H. Smith (ed.),
Mason Smith Family Letters
, 170; Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, entry for April 7, 1865, Univ. of South Carolina; Grace B. Elmore, Ms. Diary, entry for July 13, 1865, Univ. of North Carolina; Dr. Ethelred Philips to Dr. James J. Philips, Aug. 2, 1865, James J. Philips Collection, Univ. of North Carolina.

101.
Reid,
After the War
, 422n., 279. For other examples of conflict between returning Confederate soldiers and black troops, see Charles E. Cauthen (ed.),
Family Letters of the Three Wade Hamptons, 1782–1901
(Columbia, S.C., 1953), 129–30; Andrews,
The South since the War
, 28;
New York Times
, May 23, 26, 28, 1865.

102.
D. E. H. Smith (ed.),
Mason Smith Family Letters
, 181; Ravenel,
Private Journal
, 245, 251; Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, entry for March 31, 1865, Univ. of South Carolina; Petition of 18 Planters, Pineville, Charleston District, Sept. 1, 1865, Trenholm Papers, Univ. of North Carolina; 39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part II, 178;
New York Times
, Oct. 11, 1865; Evans,
Ballots and Fence Rails
, 79–80, 81; J. G. De Roulhac Hamilton,
Reconstruction in North Carolina
(New York, 1914), 158–61; Jack D. L. Holmes, “The Underlying Causes of the Memphis Race Riot of 1866,”
Tennessee Historical Review
, XVII (1958), 217.

103.
Evans,
Ballots and Fence Rails
, 79n.; Charles W. Ramsdell,
Reconstruction in Texas
(New York, 1910), 130–31; Andrews,
The South since the War
, 221.

104.
Ravenel,
Private Journal
, 245–46, 247, 251; Andrews,
War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl
, 362–63; Rev. John Hamilton Cornish, Ms. Diary, entry for June 18, 1865, Univ. of North Carolina.

105.
John W. Burbidge to Joseph Glover, July 28, 1865, Glover-North Papers, Univ. of South Carolina; E. M. Jenkins and other citizens to Bvt. Maj. Gen. R. K. Scott, June 13, 1866, with endorsement by Maj. J. E. Cornelius; Frederick Reed to Bvt. Maj. Gen. R. K. Scott, June 13, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South
Carolina (Lettere Received), Freedmen’s Bureau. See also Maj. George D. Reynolds to Lt. Stuart Eldridge, Oct. 5, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 27,
Reports of the Assistant Commissioners of the Freedmen’s Bureau
[1865–1866], 126.

106.
Christian Recorder
, Sept. 9, Oct. 21, 1865. For racial clashes among Union soldiers, see John C. Chavis to James Red-path [June 16, 1865], Univ. of South Carolina;
New York Times
, July 24, 1865, May 17, 1866; Williamson,
After Slavery
, 258; Evans,
Ballots and Fence Rails
, 63–64; Ravenel,
Private Journal
, 246; Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 193–94, 255.

107.
Christian Recorder
, Sept. 9, 1865; Evans,
Ballots and Fence Rails
, 65.

108.
Christian Recorder
, Sept. 9, 1865; Christian A. Fleetwood to Dr. James Hall, June 8, 1865, Carter G. Woodson Collection, Library of Congress.

109.
Ravenel,
Private Journal, 274
, 288–89; Nevins,
War for the Union: The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865
, 367;
New York Times
, Oct. 17, 1866.

110.
Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 319;
Christian Recorder
, Dec. 2, 1865; D. E. H. Smith (ed.),
Mason Smith Family Letters
, 232–33; A. R. Salley to “My Dear Aunt,” Nov. 13, 1865, Bruce, Jones, Murchison Papers, Univ. of South Carolina.

111.
Christian Recorder
, Sept. 9, Aug. 19, 1865; A. H. Haines to President Andrew Johnson, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, XVIII: Unwritten History, 173. For assaults on discharged black soldiers, see
New Orleans Tribune
, July 26, 28, Aug. 31, 1865;
New York Times
, June 21, 1866; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., House Exec. Doc. 70,
Freedmen’s Bureau
, 203, 236, 237, 238; Senate Exec. Doc. 27,
Reports of the Assistant Commissioners of the Freedmen’s Bureau
[1865–1866], 6.

112.
Rawick, (ed.),
American Slave
, XVIII: Unwritten History, 127;
South Carolina Leader
(Charleston), March 31, 1866. For black Union veterans who returned to the old plantations, see Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, V: Texas Narr. (Part 3), 155; VII: Okla. Narr., 253; XVI: Kansas Narr., 9.

113.
Reid,
After the War
, 558–62.

114.
New Orleans Tribune
, Aug. 31, 1865. “When de war ended, I goes back to my mastah and he treated me like his brother. Guess he wuz scared of me ’cause I had so much ammunition on me.” Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, XVI: Va. Narr., 43.

115.
Andrews,
War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl
, 341–43.

116.
Reid,
After the War
, 352.

117.
Trowbridge,
The South
, 314; Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 194.

118.
Andrews,
The South since the War
, 100; Trowbridge,
The South
, 429–30.

119.
39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part III, 146; House Exec. Doc. 70,
Freedmen’s Bureau
, 201–07. The reports of assaults and murders are voluminous, not all of them easily verifiable. See, e.g., 39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part III, 8–9, 146; House Exec. Doc. 70,
Freedmen’s Bureau
, 201–07, 236–38, 248–49; George L. Childs, Office of the Provost Court, Charlottesville, Va., Sept. 20, 1865, Brock Collection, Henry E. Huntington Library; Bvt. Col. A. E. Niles, Kingstree, S.C., to Bvt. Maj. Gen. R. K. Scott, Dec. 10, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; Letters from Anonymous (colored), Macon, Ga., April 13, 1866, Rebecca Lightfoot (freedwoman), Augusta, Ga., March 24, 1866, Freedmen’s Bureau, Georgia (Registers of Letters Received); Trowbridge,
The South
, 463, 581; Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 125–26, 195–96, 221–22;
New Orleans Tribune
, July 14, Aug. 3, 1865;
New York Times
, Oct. 22, 1865, Jan. 8, Feb. 12, 27, Oct. 31, 1866, Jan. 12, Feb. 4, Aug. 5, 22, 30, Dec. 26, 1867. For reports of whites committing rape on black women, see
Loyal Georgian
, Jan. 27, Oct. 13, 1866; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., House Exec. Doc. 70,
Freedmen’s Bureau
, 204, 207.

120.
Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 110;
Loyal Georgian
, Oct. 13, 1866. For other expressions of concern by native whites, see R. W. Flournoy, New Albany, Miss., to Rep. Thaddeus Stevens, Nov. 20, 1865, Stevens Papers, Library of Congress; Trowbridge,
The South
, 499–500.

121.
Trowbridge,
The South
, 314, 576; 39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part II, 127, Part III, 8; House Exec. Doc. 70,
Freedmen’s Bureau
, 248–49; Williamson,
After Slavery
, 97.

122.
Christian Recorder
, June 23, 1866; Albert,
House of Bondage
, 139–40. For examples of organized violence, see Lt. Col. H. R. Brinkerhoff, Clinton, Miss., to Maj. Gen. O. O. Howard, July 8, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., House Exec. Doc. 70,
Freedmen’s Bureau
, 201–06, 237–38;
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part III, 146; Andrews,
War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl
, 343; Andrews,
The South since the War
, 118, 220; Williamson,
After Slavery
, 97; Richardson,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida
, 164;
New York Times
, May 10, July 6, Aug. 29, 1866, Jan. 4, May 16, 1867.

123.
Cornelia P. Spencer to Eliza North, March 10, 1866, in Chamberlain,
Old Days in Chapel Hill
, 131; Trowbridge,
The South
, 572; Moore (ed.),
The Juhl Letters
(July 22, 1865), 23.

124.
Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 261;
Loyal Georgian
, Oct. 13, 1865; Trowbridge,
The South
, 499–500.

125.
Swint (ed.),
Dear Ones at Home
, 165–69; Ravenel,
Private Journal
, 287–89; Williamson,
After Slavery
, 258–59; Taylor,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Virginia
, 83;
New Orleans Tribune
, May 10, 12, 14, 1867;
New York Times
, July 24, 1865, April 3, 17, May 3, June 26, July 25, Aug. 20, 1866.

126.
39 Cong., 1 Sess., House Report 101,
Memphis Riots and Massacres
(Washington, D.C., 1866); William S. McFeely,
Yankee Stepfather: General O. O. Howard and the Freedmen
(New Haven, 1968), 274–82; Holmes, “The Underlying Causes of the Memphis Race Riot of 1866,” 195–221;
American Freedman
, I (July 1866), 50–51;
New York Times
, May 3, 4, 7, 10, 11, 17, June 29, July 26, 1866; Taylor,
Negro in Tennessee
, 85–87.