Been in the Storm So Long (140 page)

50.
J. W. Alvord,
Report on Schools and Finances of Freedmen for July, 1866
(Washington, D.C., 1866), 16 (Helena, Ark.); Ames,
From a New England Woman’s Diary in Dixie
, 108–09 (Seabrook);
New York Times
, Jan. 13, 19, 1862 (Lawrence); Williamson,
After Slavery
, 211 (Charleston); Reid,
After the War
, 246 (New Orleans); W. T. Richardson to M. E. Strieby, Jan. 2, 1865 (Savannah), and Rev. W. F. Eaton to Rev. George Whipple, May 26, 1865 (King plantation, St. Simon’s Island), American Missionary Assn. Archives;
Colored Tennessean
, March 24, 1866 (Douglass school);
National Freedman
, I (Feb. 1, 1865), 11–12 (Savannah); Trowbridge,
The South
, 490 (Augusta), 509–10 (Savannah). See also Swint,
Northern Teacher in the South
, 79–80 (Richmond); Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 271 (La.); Trowbridge,
The South
, 337 (Tenn.); Haviland,
A Woman’s Life-Work
, 321–22 (New Orleans);
New York Tribune
, July 7, 1865 (Richmond).

51.
Colored Tennessean
, Oct. 14, 1865; J. W. Alvord,
Fourth Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen, July 1, 1867
(Washington, D.C., 1867), 83, and
Ninth Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen, January 1, 1870
(Washington, D.C., 1870), 46; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, IV: Texas Narr. (Part 2), 48. On the plantation schools, see also J. W. Alvord,
Third Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen, January 1, 1867
(Washington, D.C., 1867), 25–26;
Colored Tennessean
, March 24, 1866; B. F. Randolph to Bvt. Maj. Gen. R. K. Scott, March 15, 1867, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; S. S. Ashley to Rev. Samuel Hunt, March 7, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives;
National Freedman
, II (April 1866), 118 (F. A. Fiske); Waterbury,
Seven Years Among the Freedmen
, 18; Stearns,
Black Man of the South, and The Rebels
, 196–99; Trowbridge,
The South
, 289; Reid,
After the War
, 511;
New York Times
, Oct. 17, 1865, May 27, 1867.

52.
Chesnut,
Diary from Dixie
, 199–200; Mary E. Burdick to George Whipple, March 8, 1864, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

53.
McPherson, “The New Puritanism: Values and Goals of Freedmen’s Education in America,” 624–25. On the educational work of the Freedmen’s Bureau, see, in addition to the archival records and official reports, Abbott,
Freedmen’s Bureau in South Carolina
, 82–98; White,
Freedmen’s Bureau in Louisiana
, 166–200; and Bentley,
History of the Freedmen’s Bureau
, 169–84.

54.
Marcia Colton to Rev. George Whipple, June 14, 1864, American Missionary Assn. Archives; Lydia Maria Child to Sarah S. Shaw, April 8, 1866, Shaw Family Papers, New York Public Library;
American Freedman
, I (April 1866), 3 (editorial). See also
National Freedman
, I (March 1, 1865), 44 (annual report).

55.
Botume,
First Days Amongst the Contrabands
, 31–32; Josiah Beardsley, Feb. 15, 1865, Marcia Colton to Rev. George Whipple, June 14, 1864, American Missionary Assn. Archives; Ames,
From a New England Woman’s Diary in Dixie
, 25–26; Rose,
Rehearsal for Reconstruction
, 58. On missionary comparisons of the blacks and the Irish, see also Towne,
Letters and Diary
, 6; Pearson (ed.),
Letters from Port Royal
, 11, 15, 18, 75.

56.
George N. Greene to George Whipple, May 15, 1865, H. S. Beals to Rev. Samuel Hunt, Dec. 30, 1865, Frank H. Green to George Whipple, July 7, 1864, American Missionary Assn. Archives; Swint,
Northern Teacher in the South
, 41;
National Freedman
,
I (Feb. 1, 1865), 14 (Juliet B. Smith);
American Freedman
, III (April 1869), 7 (Lucy Eastman).

57.
National Freedman
, I (April 1, 1865), 92 (Fannie Graves and Annie P. Merriam); S. S. Ashley to Col. N. A. McLean, Feb. 7, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

58.
Towne,
Letters and Diary
, 26;
New National Era
, April 13, 1871. On the respective merits of practical and classical education, see also
New Era
, May 5, 1870 (“Genius and Its Exactions”).

59.
Christian Recorder
, Aug. 5, 1865; Quarles,
Negro in the Civil War
, 291; Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 287. On the content of instruction, see also, e.g., Swint,
Northern Teacher in the South
, 80–90; Towne,
Letters and Diary
, 163;
Extracts from Letters of Teachers and Superintendents of the New England Educational Commission for Freedmen
(4th Series, Jan. 1, 1864; Boston, 1864), 8–10; Stearns,
Black Man in the South, and The Rebels
, 59–64;
Christian Recorder
, Sept. 29, 1866 (“Impressions of Charleston”);
New York Tribune
, June 2, 1865;
New Era
, Feb. 24, 1870 (J. W. Alvord).

60.
A. L. Etheridge to William T. Briggs, June 7, 1864, Edwin S. Williams to S. S. Jocelyn, April 26, 1863, American Missionary Assn. Archives; Forten,
Journal
, 131.

61.
Sarah J. Foster to E. P. Smith, Jan. 3, 1868, W. L. Coan to George Whipple, Oct. 6, 1864, American Missionary Assn. Archives; Reid,
After the War
, 249–50; Botume,
First Days Amongst the Contrabands
, 257;
New York Tribune
, Dec. 2, 1865.

62.
National Freedman
, II (April 1866), 115 (Chloe Merrick);
American Freedman
, III (May 1868), 412.

63.
Mary E. Burdick to George Whipple, March 8, 1864, American Missionary Assn. Archives. On comparisons of white and black students and the aptness of blacks for various fields of study, see Josiah Beardsley, Feb. 15, 1865 (Ms. apparently intended for publication in
The American Missionary)
, G. H. Hyde to W. E. Whiting, Feb. 26, 1862, William G. Kephart to Lewis Tappan, May 9, 1864, John Silsby to Rev. George Whipple, Sept. 14, 1866, Elliot Whipple to Rev. E. P. Smith, June 17, 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives;
National Freedman
, I (April 1, 1865), 92, (July 15, 1865), 191–92, (Aug. 15, 1865), 217;
Extracts from Letters of Teachers and Superintendents of the New England Educational Commission for Freedmen
(4th series, Jan. 1, 1864), 3, 7, 9; 39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part II, 91, 256; Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 207; Trowbridge,
The South
, 337; Reid,
After the War
, 255; Macrae,
Americans at Home
, 342–45;
New York Times
, Aug. 6, 17, 1865;
New York Tribune
, July 7, 1865. On comparisons of black and mulatto students, see
Loyal Georgian
, March 17, 1866;
National Freedman
, I (Aug. 15, 1865), 218; Nordhoff,
Freedmen of South Carolina
, 9.

64.
Botume,
First Days Amongst the Contrabands
, 107–09;
National Freedman
, I (Sept. 15, 1865), 251;
Christian Recorder
, July 1, 1865; Reid,
After the War
, 15–17, 246–53; Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 206–08, 211, 304.

65.
Freedom’s Journal
, June 1, 1827; Frank H. Green to Rev. George Whipple, Aug. 12, 1864, American Missionary Assn. Archives;
Christian Recorder
, May 6, 1865 (J. C. Gibbs).

66.
Rev. W. T. Richardson to Mrs. E. A. Lane, April 29, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives;
Christian Recorder
, July 8, 1865 (G.N.Y.).

67.
Asa B. Whitfield to Julia A. Shearman, April 17, 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

68.
39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part II, 247; Moore (ed.),
The Juhl Letters
(Sept. 18, 1866), 120.

69.
Richardson,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida
, 100; N. A. McLean to Rev. S. S. Ashley, Feb. 20, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives; J. W. Alvord,
Eighth Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen, July 1, 1869
, 54. See also John Silsby to Rev. George Whipple, Sept. 14, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives;
National Freedman
, I (Nov. 15, 1865), 316 (B. W. Pond).

70.
Botume,
First Days Amongst the Contrabands
, 4; [Prof. Bennett Puryear],
The Public School in Its Relation to the Negro
(Richmond, 1877), 11. See also 39 Cong.,
1 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 2, “Report of Carl Schurz,” 25; Evans,
Ballots and Fence Rails
, 226–27.

71.
Nolen,
Negro’s Image in the South
, 127–28.

72.
39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part II, 55, 86, 143, 183, 252; B. F. Whittemore to Bvt. Maj. H. W. Smith, Dec. 30, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; D. C. Jencks to Rev. Samuel Hunt, Dec. 21, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

73.
D. T. Allen to Rev. C. H. Fowler, Jan. 1, 1864, American Missionary Assn. Archives; Amos McCollough et al. to Gen. O. O. Howard, May 6, 1866, Charles F. Mayerhoff to Col. Samuel Thomas, April 2, 1866, R. F. Campbell to Col. Samuel Thomas, April 5, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, North Carolina and Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau. On native white reaction to black schools and the reception accorded teachers of freedmen, see also John P. Bardwell to George Whipple, April 28, May 4, 1866, William L. Clark to Rev. E. P. Smith, Nov. 19, 1867, Rev. George W. Honey to Rev. M. E. Strieby, Feb. 21, 1866, Addie Warren to John P. Bardwell, May 6, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives;
National Freedman
, I (Nov. 15, 1865), 324 (M. Anderson), (Dec. 15, 1865), 347 (A. B. Corliss), 360 (W. J. Albert), II (May 1866), 149;
American Freedman
, III (June 1868), 427; Waterbury,
Seven Years Among the Freedmen
, 19; Office of the Board of Education for Freedmen, Dept. of the Gulf,
Report
(Feb. 28, 1865), 8–9; Trowbridge,
The South
, 188, 228, 490;
Loyal Georgian
, May 9, 1867; Swint,
Northern Teacher in the South
, 94–142.

74.
Christian Recorder
, June 16, 1866;
New Orleans Tribune
, Dec. 29, 1865, Sept. 5, 1866; John P. Bardwell to George Whipple, April 28, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives;
National Freedman
, I (Nov. 15, 1865), 328 (C. Kennedy).

75.
39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part II, 253; Towne,
Letters and Diary
, 178. See also J. W. Alvord,
Eighth Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen, July 1, 1869
, 23;
Loyal Georgian
, July 6, 1867 (G. L. Eberhart);
New York Tribune
, Dec. 2, 1865.

76.
Sallie Coit to Emily, April 15, 1868, William N. Tillinghast Papers, Duke Univ.; A. W. Moore to E. H. Dabbs, April 30, 1870, A. L. Burt Papers, Duke Univ.

77.
Reid,
After the War
, 152; Botume,
First Days Amongst the Contrabands
, 257–58. For examples of racial mixing in the freedmen’s schools, see Rev. Fisk P. Brewer to Rev. George Whipple, Nov. 8, 1866 (“I would not have it made too public till we can show more decided results”), American Missionary Assn. Archives;
American Freedman
, I (June 1866), 43 (F. P. Brewer), 44 (E. B. Adams), (July 1866), 80; Swint (ed.),
Dear Ones at Home
, 204; Richardson,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida
, 108–09. On the fate of the “experiment” in Raleigh, see Fisk P. Brewer to George Whipple, Feb. 6, 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

78.
American Freedman
, I (April 1866), 5–6, (May 1866), 23–24; H. S. Beals to Rev. E. P. Smith, Feb. 15, 1867, Rev. S. J. Whiton to Rev. E. P. Smith, Feb. 16, 1867, Rev. S. J. Whiton to Rev. George Whipple, Feb. 28, 1867, Rev. S. J. Whiton to Rev. E. P. Smith, March 4, 1867, John Scott to Rev. E. P. Smith, March 6, 1867, Hyman Thompson to Rev. George Whipple, March 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

79.
New York Times
, Dec. 15, 1867.

80.
New Orleans Tribune
, April 26, 1867, Jan. 22, 1869. See also
ibid.
, Feb. 17, 23, 1865, July 24, Oct. 24, 29, 1867; William T. Nicholls to “Cousin Tom,” Col. W. W. Pugh Papers, Louisiana State Univ.; J. W. Alvord,
Tenth Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen, July 1, 1870
, 48.

81.
Avary,
Dixie after the War
, 312; Mary to Missouria Stokes, June 1868, Missouria Stokes Papers, Duke Univ.; Miss. S. W. Stansbury to Rev. E. P. Smith, May 21, 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

82.
G. L. Eberhart to Rev. Samuel Hunt, May 23, June 4, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives. See also J. E. Bryant to Rev. George Whipple, June 12, 1866, Davis Tillson to Rev. Whipple, July 4, 1866.

83.
American Freedman
, I (Nov. 1866), 114 (editorial); Martha L. Kellogg to Rev. George Whipple, Dec. 17, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

84.
On the question of racial mixing in the abolitionist movement, see, e.g., Leon F. Litwack,
North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790–1860
(Chicago, 1961), 216–23.

85.
Lewis Tappan,
Caste: A Letter to a Teacher Among the Freedmen
(New York [1867]), 9;
Christian Recorder
, Jan. 7, 1865.

86.
Christian Recorder
, April 23, 1864, June 29, 1867, Jan. 7, 1865. See also the sources cited in note 24.