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90.
New York Times
, Oct. 28, Aug. 9, 31, 1867.

91.
Loyal Georgian
, Aug. 10, 1867;
New York Times
, June 30, May 20, Sept. 25, 1867;
Loyal Georgian
, April 10, 1867. But Thomas W. Stringer, a black political leader in Mississippi, thought his people “more or less mistrustful” of all the candidates. “They know that there are but few southerners that will do altogether right by them in making the laws, and that northerners with a few exceptions, that are eligible, are no better.”
Christian Recorder
, May 11, 1867.

92.
Towne,
Letters and Diary
, 182–83;
St. Landry Progress
, Nov. 16, 1867.

93.
New York Times
, May 28, 1867;
Christian Recorder
, Oct. 11, 1867 (M. R. Delany);
Free Press
(Charleston), April 5, 1868. On black political aspirations, see also
Christian Recorder
, Aug. 10 (“A Colored Man for Vice-President of the United States” and “Who Are Our Friends?”), Nov. 30 (J. C. Sampson), 1867;
New York Times
, Aug. 6, 9, Oct. 22, 1867.

94.
Christian Recorder
, June 26, 1869 (M. R. Delany);
New Orleans Tribune
, June 12, 13, 14, 18, June 25, 29, July 11, 12, 31, 1867.

95.
New Orleans Tribune
, May 17, June 12, May 19, Dec. 24, June 9, April 21, May 1, July 31, 1867.

96.
Macon Telegraph
, reprinted in
St. Landry Progress
, Oct. 5, 1867.

97.
Edward Deane, Asst. Commissioner, Freedmen’s Bureau, Charleston, S.C., to Headquarters, Sub-Asst. Commissioner, Darlington, S.C., Aug. 24, 1867, with a newspaper clipping on the Rev. Nick Williams from
Charleston Mercury
, Aug. 24, 1867, instructions to investigate “the truth of the statements contained therein,” and an endorsement by the commanding officer in Darlington that he had already dispatched troops to arrest Williams. Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau. The arrest is also reported in
New York Times
, Sept. 9, 1867.

98.
F. W. Pickens to Adele Petigru Allston, Nov. 22, 1867, in Easterby (ed.),
South Carolina Rice Plantation
, 237; Josiah Gorgas, Ms. Journal, entries for March 9, July 14, Aug. 25, 1867, Univ. of North Carolina; Abner S. Williams, Mayor of Williamston, North Carolina, to Hon. Jonathan Worth, Sept. 8, 1866, Lt. C. W. Dodge to Lt. Col. Stephen Moore, Sept. 28, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, North Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau. See H. S. Van Eaton to Bvt. Maj. Gen. A. Gillem, Nov. 24, 1867, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.

99.
Loyal Georgian
, Aug. 10, 1867; John H. Bills, Ms. Diary, entries for July 16, 17, 29, 1867, Univ. of North Carolina; Edward Barnwell Heyward to “Tat” [Catherine Maria Clinch Heyward], May 5, 1867, Heyward Family Papers, Univ. of South Carolina.

100.
Lt. H. R. Williams to Lt. Merritt Barber, Feb. 10, 1868, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau;
New York Times
, Jan. 30, 1868 (Bureau circular, Albany, Ga.). For reports that the impending elections had revived hopes among freedmen of land redistribution, see Fisk P. Brewer to Rev. George Whipple, May 27, 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives; Sarah M. Payne to Mary Clendenin, Dec. 14, 1867, Historical Society of Pennsylvania; Robert Philip Howell, Ms. Memoirs, 24, Univ. of North Carolina; Mrs. Mary Jones to Mrs. Mary S. Mallard, May 15, 1867, in Myers (ed.),
Children of Pride
, 1382;
New York Times
, May 18, June 14, July 23, Aug. 13, Oct. 11, 1867, Feb. 28, 1868.

101.
Ravenel,
Private Journal
, 306; Theodore G. Barker to Benjamin Allston, Oct. 10, 1867, in Easterby (ed.),
South Carolina Rice Plantation
, 235; William Heyward to James Gregorie, June 4, 1868, Gregorie-Elliott Collection, Univ. of North Carolina. The same suggestion was made in a Macon newspaper, as quoted in
New York Times
, Aug. 13, 1867.

102.
Henry Middleton to Mr. and Mrs. J. Francis Fisher, May 29, 1867, Cadwalader Collection (J. F. Fisher section), Historical Society of Pennsylvania; W. E. B. Du Bois, “Reconstruction and Its Benefits,”
American Historical Review
, XV (1910), 795; Pur-year,
The Public School in Its Relation to the Negro
, 14.

103.
Walter K. Steele to W. W. Lenoir, Jan. 5, 1868, Lenoir Papers, Univ. of North Carolina; G. I. Crafts to William Porcher Miles, April 13, 1867, William P. Miles Collection, Univ. of North Carolina. Similar
sentiments are expressed in John C. MacRae to Donald MacRae, March 17, 1867, MacRae Papers, Duke Univ., and in Dr. Ethelred Philips to Dr. James J. Philips, Dec. 1, 1867, James J. Philips Collection, Univ. of North Carolina.

104.
Augusta
(Ga.)
Chronicle
, as quoted in
New Orleans Tribune
, Nov. 22, 1865;
Free Press
, April 11, 1868;
New Orleans Tribune
, April 9, 17, 1867. For white appeals to black voters, see also Jacob R. Davis, “To the Colored Voters of the 18th District of Georgia” [1868?], Joseph Belknap Smith Papers, Duke Univ.;
New York Times
, March 21, April 8, June 19, Aug. 25, 1867. For black response to these appeals, see
New Orleans Tribune
, April 9 (“The Enemy’s Plan”), Nov. 27, Dec. 14, 21, 1867;
New York Times
, May 25, 1867.

105.
New Orleans Tribune
, Dec. 13, 1867; Paul L. De Clouet, Ms. Diary, entry for Nov. 3, 1868, Alexandre E. De Clouet Papers, Louisiana State Univ. For reports of the activities of “conservative” blacks, see
New Orleans Tribune
, April 9, Dec. 14, 1867;
New York Times
, April 2, 15, 21, Sept. 1, Nov. 21, 22, 26, 1867. For black response, including alleged threats of violence, see “Conservative Negroes,” in Charles N. Hunter scrapbook, Nov. 30, 1867, Duke Univ.; J. N. Huske to “Dear Joe,” Aug. 17, 1868, William N. Tillinghast Papers, Duke Univ.;
New Orleans Tribune
, April 13, 1867;
New York Times
, Oct. 23, 1867.

106.
E. W. Demus to Capt. William C. Sterling, April 24, 1867, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Louisiana (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; George R. Ghiselin to Dr. Thomas J. McKie, Nov. 2, 1868, T. J. McKie Papers, Duke Univ.; Jacob Black, Chairman of Board of Registration, Eufala, Ala, to Hon. Albert Griffin, Feb. 22, 1868, Thaddeus Stevens Papers, Library of Congress. For reports of violence, intimidation, and economic coercion, see also Thad K. Pruess, Oxford, Miss, to Maj. A. W. Preston, July 31, 1867, William E. Dove, Georgetown, S.C., to Bvt. Maj. H. C. Egbert, June 6, 1868, Lt. W. G. Sprague, Aberdeen, Miss, to Maj. John Tyler, July 2, 1868, Emanuel Handy [freedman candidate for the legislature], Hazlehurst, Miss, to Gen. A. C. Gillem, July 5, 1868, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi and South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; A. Y. Sharpe to Mrs. Lucy M. Young, Aug. 31, 1868, William D. Simpson Papers, Univ. of North Carolina; Moore (ed.),
The Juhl Letters
(May 7, 1867), 155–56:
New York Times
, April 7, Oct. 3, Dec. 14, 20, 1867.

107.
New York Times
, Feb. 15, 1868 (Montgomery, Ala.). See also
Christian Recorder
, Nov. 16, 1867 (Norfolk);
New York Times
, June 4 (Washington, D.C.), Aug. 2 (Knoxville and Memphis), Oct. 29 (Augusta and Richmond), 30 (Macon and Savannah), 1867.

Selected Bibliography

This bibliography is confined to books, articles, and government documents that have been cited more than once in the Notes
.

Abbott, Martin.
The Freedmen’s Bureau in South Carolina, 1865–1872
. Chapel Hill, 1967.

An Address by the Colored People of Missouri to the Friends of Equal Rights
. [State Executive Committee for Equal Political Rights in Missouri] St. Louis, 1865.

[African Methodist Episcopal Church].
Proceedings of the Forty-eighth Annual Session of the Baltimore Conference of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, April 13th, 1865
. Baltimore, 1865.

Albert, Mrs. Octavia V. Rogers.
The House of Bondage, or Charlotte Brooks and Other Slaves
. New York, 1891.

Alvord, John W.
Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen
. Washington, D.C., 1867–1870.

Ames, Mary.
From a New England Woman’s Diary in Dixie in 1865
. Springfield, Mass., 1906.

Anderson, Ephraim M.
Memoirs: Historical and Personal; including the Campaigns of the First Missouri Confederate Brigade
. St. Louis, 1868.

Andrews, Eliza Frances.
The War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl, 1864–1865
. New York, 1908.

Andrews, Matthew Page (ed.).
The Women of the South in War Times
. Baltimore, 1920.

Andrews, Sidney.
The South Since the War: As Shown by Fourteen Weeks of Travel and Observation in Georgia and the Carolinas
. Boston, 1866.

Aptheker, Herbert.
American Negro Slave Revolts
. New York, 1943.

———. A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States
. New York, 1951.

———. “Notes on Slave Conspiracies in Confederate Mississippi.”
Journal of Negro History
XXIX (1944), 75–79.

Armstrong, Mrs. M. F., and Helen W. Ludlow.
Hampton and Its Students. By Two of Its Teachers
. New York, 1875.

Armstrong, Orland Kay.
Old Massa’s People: The Old Slaves Tell Their Story
. Indianapolis, 1931.

Avary, Myrta Lockett.
Dixie After the War
. New York, 1906.

Ball, William W.
The State That Forgot: South Carolina’s Surrender to Democracy
. Indianapolis, 1932.

Basler, Roy P. (ed.).
The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln
. 8 vols. New Brunswick, N.J., 1953.

Beatty, John.
The Citizen Soldier; or Memoirs of a Volunteer
. Cincinnati, 1879.

Bennett, Andrew J.
The Story of the First Massachusetts Light Battery
. Boston, 1886.

Bentley, George R.
A History of the Freedmen’s Bureau
. Philadelphia, 1955.

Berlin, Ira.
Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South
. New York, 1974.

Bettersworth, John K.
Confederate Mississippi
Baton Rouge, 1943.

———(ed.).
Mississippi in the Confederacy: As They Saw It
. Baton Rouge, 1961.

Blassingame, John W.
Black New Orleans, 1860–1880
. Chicago, 1973.

———. “The Recruitment of Colored Troops in Kentucky, Maryland and Missouri, 1863–1865.”
The Historian
XXIX (1967), 533–45.

———(ed.).
Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies
. Baton Rouge, 1977.

Botume, Elizabeth Hyde.
First Days Amongst the Contrabands
. Boston, 1893.

Bradford, Sarah.
Harriet Tubman: The Moses of Her People
. 2nd ed. 1886; repr. New York, 1961.

Bragg, Jefferson D.
Louisiana in the Confederacy
. Baton Rouge, 1941.

Brewer, James H.
The Confederate Negro: Virginia’s Craftsmen and Military Laborers, 1861–1865
. Durham, 1969.

Brooks, Aubrey Lee, and Hugh Talmage Lefler (eds.).
The Papers of Walter Clark
. 2 vols. Chapel Hill, 1948.

Brown, William Wells. “Narrative of William Wells Brown.” In Gilbert Osofsky (ed.),
Puttin’ On Ole Massa
. New York, 1969.

———. The Negro in the American Rebellion: His Heroism and His Fidelity
. Boston, 1880.

Bruce, H. C.
The New Man. Twenty-nine Years a Slave. Twenty-nine Years a Free Man
. York, Pa., 1895; repr. New York, 1969.

Bruce, John E.
Washington’s Colored Society
. n.p., 1877 (typewritten copy in Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library).

Bryan, Thomas C.
Confederate Georgia
. Athens, 1953.

Bryant, William C. II (ed.). “A Yankee Soldier Looks at the Negro.”
Civil War History
VII (1961), 133–48.

Burge, Dolly L.
The Diary of Dolly Lunt Burge
, edited by James I. Robertson. Athens, 1962.

Burton, Elijah P.
Diary of E. P. Burton, Surgeon 7th Reg. Ill. 3rd Brig. 2nd Div. 16 A.C
. Des Moines, 1939.

[Campbell, Tunis G.].
Sufferings of the Rev. T. G. Campbell and His Family, in Georgia
. Washington, D.C., 1877.

Cauthen, Charles E. (ed.).
Family Letters of the Three Wade Hamptons, 1782–1901
. Columbia, S.C., 1953.

Chamberlain, Hope Summerell.
Old Days in Chapel Hill: Being the Life and Letters of Cornelia Phillips Spencer
. Chapel Hill, 1926.

Chesnut, Mary Boykin.
A Diary from Dixie
, edited by Ben Ames Williams. Boston, 1949.

Coleman, Kenneth (ed.).
Athens, 1861–1865
. Athens, 1969.

[Convention of Colored Citizens of Arkansas].
Proceedings of the Convention of Colored Citizens of the State of Arkansas, Held in Little Rock. Thursday, Friday and Saturday, Nov. 30, Dec. 1 and 2
. Helena, Ark., 1866.

[Convention of Colored Men, Kentucky].
Proceedings of the State Convention of Colored Men, Held at Lexington, Kentucky, in the A.M.E. Church, November 26th, 27th, and 28th, 1867
. Frankfort, Ky., 1867.

[Convention of the Colored People of Virginia].
Proceedings of the Colored People of Va., Held in the City of Alexandria, Aug. 2, 3, 4, 5
, 1865. Alexandria, 1865.

[Convention of the Equal Rights and Educational Assn. of Georgia].
Proceedings of the Convention of the Equal Rights and Educational Association of Georgia, Assembled at Macon, October 29th, 1866
. Augusta, 1866.

Convention of the Freedmen of North Carolina: Official Proceedings
. [Raleigh, 1865].

Conyngham, David P.
Sherman’s March Through the South
. New York, 1865.

Coppin, Bishop L. J.
Unwritten History
. Philadelphia, 1919.

Cornish, Dudley Taylor.
The Sable Arm: Negro Troops in the Union Army, 1861–1865
. New York, 1956.

Coulter, E. Merton.
The Confederate States of America, 1861–1865
. Baton Rouge, 1950.

———. “Slavery and Freedom in Athens, Georgia, 1860–1866.” In Elinor Miller and Eugene D. Genovese (eds.),
Plantation, Town, and County: Essays on the Local History of American Slave Society
, 337–64. Urbana, 1974.

[Council of the Georgia Equal Rights Assn.].
Proceedings of the Council of the Georgia Equal Rights Association. Assembled at Augusta, Ga. April 4th, 1866
. Augusta, 1866.

Dawson, Sarah Morgan.
A Confederate Girl’s Diary
. Boston, 1913.

De Forest, John William.
A Union Officer in the Reconstruction
, edited by James H. Croushore and David M. Potter. New Haven, 1948.

Dennett, John Richard.
The South As It Is, 1865–1866
, edited by Henry M. Christman. New York, 1965.

Dew, Charles B.
Ironmaker to the Confederacy: Joseph R. Anderson and the Tredegar Iron Works
. New Haven, 1966.

Douglass, Frederick.
Life and Times of Frederick Douglass
. Written by Himself. Hartford, Conn, 1882.

———. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave
. Written by Himself. 3rd English ed. Wortley, near Leeds, 1846.

Du Bois, W. E. Burghardt.
Black Reconstruction, 1860–1880
. New York, 1935.

———. The Souls of Black Folk
. Chicago, 1903.

Durden, Robert F.
The Gray and the Black: The Confederate Debate on Emancipation
. Baton Rouge, 1972.

Easterby, J. H. (ed.).
The South Carolina Rice Plantation: As Revealed in the Papers of Robert F. W. Allston
. Chicago, 1945.

Eaton, John.
Grant, Lincoln and the Freedmen: Reminiscences of the Civil War With Special Reference to the Work for the Contrabands and Freedmen of the Mississippi Valley
. New York, 1907; repr. New York, 1969.

Ellison, Ralph.
Shadow and Act
New York, 1964.

Emilio, Luis F.
History of the Fifty-Fourth Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 1863–1865
. Boston, 1891.

Eppes, Mrs. Nicholas Ware [Susan Bradford Eppes].
The Negro of the Old South: A Bit of Period History
. Chicago, 1925.

———. Through Some Eventful Years
. Macon, 1926; repr. Gainesville, 1968.

Equal Suffrage. Address from the Colored Citizens of Norfolk, Virginia, to the People of the United States. Also An Account of the Agitation Among the Colored People of Virginia for Equal Rights
. New Bedford, Mass., 1865.

Evans, W. McKee.
Ballots and Fence Rails: Reconstruction on the Lower Cape Fear
. Chapel Hill, 1967.

Farrison, William E.
William Wells Brown: Author and Reformer
. Chicago, 1969.

Fisk, Clinton B.
Plain Counsels for Freedmen: In Sixteen Brief Lectures
. Boston, 1866.

Fisk University.
Unwritten History of Slavery
. In George P. Rawick,
The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography
, Vol. 18. Westport, Conn., 1972.

Fleming, Walter L.
Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama
. New York, 1905.

———(ed.).
Documentary History of Reconstruction
. 2 vols. Cleveland, 1906–07.

Forten, Charlotte L.
The Journal of Charlotte L. Forten
, edited by Ray Allen Billington. New York, 1953.

Franklin, John Hope (ed.).
The Diary of fames T. Ayers: Civil War Recruiter
. Springfield, Ill., 1947.

[Freedmen’s Convention of Georgia].
Proceedings of the Freedmen’s Convention of Georgia, Assembled at Augusta, January 10th, 1866
. Augusta, 1866.

Fremantle, Arthur James Lyon.
Three Months in the Southern States: April-June, 1863
. New York, 1864.

Genovese, Eugene D.
Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made
. New York, 1974.

Gerteis, Louis S.
From Contraband to Freedman: Federal Policy Toward Southern Blacks, 1861–1865
. Westport, Conn., 1973.

Gordon, George H.
A War Diary of Events in the War of the Great Rebellion, 1863–1865
. Boston, 1882.

Gottlieb, Manuel. “The Land Question During Reconstruction.”
Science and Society
III (1939), 356–88.

Grimball, John Berkley. “Diary of John Berkley Grimball, 1858–1865.”
South Carolina Historical Magazine
LVI (1955), 8–30, 92–114, 157–80, 205–25; LVII (1956), 28–50, 88–102.

Guthrie, James M.
Camp-Fires of the Afro-American; or, The Colored Man as a Patriot
. Cincinnati, [1899].

Gutman, Herbert G.
The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750–1925
. New York, 1976.

Haviland, Laura S.
A Woman’s Life-Work: Labors and Experiences
. Cincinnati, 1881.

Hepworth, George H.
The Whip, Hoe, and Sword; or, The Gulf-Department in ‘63
. Boston, 1864.

Heyward, Duncan Clinch.
Seed From Madagascar
. Chapel Hill, 1937.

Higginson, Thomas Wentworth.
Army Life in a Black Regiment
. Boston, 1870.

Hitchcock, Henry.
Marching With Sherman: Passages from the Letters and Campaign Diaries of Henry Hitchcock
, edited by M. A. DeWolfe Howe. New Haven, 1927.

Holmes, Jack D. L. “The Underlying Causes of the Memphis Race Riot of 1866.”
Tennessee Historical Quarterly
XVII (1958), 195–221.

House, Albert V., Jr. (ed.). “Deterioration of a Georgia Rice Plantation During Four Years of Civil
War.” Journal of Southern History
IX (1943), 98–113.

Howard, Oliver Otis.
Autobiography of Oliver Otis Howard
. 2 vols. New York, 1907.

Jackson, Bruce (ed.).
The Negro and His Folklore in Nineteenth-Century Periodicals
. Austin, 1967.

James, Rev. Horace.
Annual Report of the Superintendent of Negro Affairs in North Carolina
, 1864. Boston, n.d.

Jaquette, Henrietta S. (ed.).
South After Gettysburg: Letters of Cornelia Hancock, 1863–1868
. New York, 1956.

Jervey, Susan R., and Charlotte St. J. Ravenel.
Two Diaries: From Middle St. John’s, Berkeley, South Carolina, February-May, 1865. Journals Kept by Miss Susan R. Jervey and Miss Charlotte St. J. Ravenel, at Northampton and Pooshee Plantations, and Reminiscences of Mrs. (Waring) Henagan. With Two Contemporary Reports from Federal Officials
. St. John’s Hunting Club, 1921.

Johns, Henry T.
Life With the Forty-Ninth Massachusetts Volunteers
. Washington, D.C., 1890.

Johns, John E.
Florida During the Civil War
. Gainesville, 1963.

Jones, John B.
A Rebel War Clerk’s Diary at the Confederate States Capital
, edited by Earl S. Miers. New York, 1961.

Jones, Katharine M. (ed.).
Heroines of Dixie: Confederate Women Tell Their Story of the War
. Indianapolis, 1955.

———(ed.).
When Sherman Came: Southern Women and the “Great March.”
Indianapolis, 1964.

Jordan, Weymouth T.
Hugh Davis and His Alabama Plantation
. University, Ala., 1948.

Katz, William Loren (ed.).
Five Slave Narratives
. New York, 1969.

Kerby, Robert L.
Kirby Smith’s Confederacy: The Trans-Mississippi South, 1863–1865
. New York, 1972.

Knox, Thomas W.
Camp-Fire and Cotton-Field: Southern Adventure in Time of War. Life With the Union Armies, and Residence on a Louisiana Plantation
. Cincinnati, 1865.

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