Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (334 page)

Native to the land, the original inhabitants. See also
ABORIGINES
.

 
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See
PERCUSSION FLAKING
.

 
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Term applied to a large group of cognate languages, including the majority of European language groups—Italic, Germanic, Celtic, Baltic, Slavonic, and Greek—as well as Indo-Iranian (Persian and Hindi) and Sanskrit. Many attempts have been made to model and explain the dispersal of Indo-European languages, a problem fraught with difficulties because of having to correlate linguistic groups with material culture, ethnic communities, and cultural groups. Following earlier work by Gordon Childe and others, Marija Gimbutas has articulated and elaborated the long-held traditional view which situates the homeland of a proto-Indo-European language in the Euro-Asiatic steppe of south Russia and western Asia. From here it spread into Europe with the single-grave, corded ware, and globular amphorae groups during the 2nd millennium
bc
. A similar argument was elaborated still further by Jim Mallory in 1989, confirming the area north of the Black Sea as the Indo-European homeland and seeking its spread around 4000 bc, late in the Neolithic or early Copper Age of the region. However, the precise origins, timing, and social context of the language spread has been disputed by Colin Renfrew who forcefully argues for an origin in Anatolia and northern Greece and a much earlier spread, starting in the 7th millennium
bc
, linked to the dispersal of farming technologies and the classic Neolithic lifestyle.

 
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Reasoning by which one proceeds from specific observations to make general conclusions. Thus in archaeology inductivist research starts with the observation or analysis of data and moves on to the development of general statements and conclusions from them. This approach contrasts with
DEDUCTIVISM
and hypothesis-driven research.

 
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An extensive civilization that developed on the plains of the Indus Valley of Pakistan and northwestern India in the middle of the 3rd millennium
bc
and lasted for about five centuries. Also known as the Harappan civilization. The discovery of the Indus civilization was a piece of pure archaeological research that began in the late 19th century
ad
with work by Sir John Marshall and with the discovery of some seal-stamps at
HARAPPA
. Unlike many other great civilizations, no hint of its former existence came through in the later historical texts from the Indian subcontinent.The origins of the Indus civilization are poorly known. Certainly there are some connections with the
AKKADIAN
period in Mesopotamia, but the extent of any influence is impossible to gauge. There does, however, appear to be a period of rapid cultural change in the Indus Valley about 2600 bc with the emergence of major cities such as Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Ganweriwala, and perhaps also Chanhu-daro, Lothal, Dholavira, and Kalibangan. A form of writing developed, still not deciphered, and there was agricultural intensification with concentration on barley and wheat. The peoples of the Indus were also cattle-keepers on a grand scale, with cattle bones representing more than 50 per cent of the material in any assemblage; there is also abundant cattle imagery in art. Long-distance trade both east and west is well attested, as well as internal commerce in artefacts and foodstuffs. Metal was worked and there was an early use of the fast wheel for potting. The central theme of Indus religion is the combined male/female deity symbolized by animal horns and broad curving plant motifs. There is some speculation that some of the beliefs and imagery represent a proto-Shiva or early form of Buddhism, but this is highly speculative. There is an interest in water and cleanliness. How and why the civilization came to an end is unknown. The major settlements were simply abandoned around 2000 bc, with no archaeological evidence for natural disasters or invasions by other peoples.

 
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