Double Victory (23 page)

One service provided by the Red Cross was the collection and distribution of blood, which was available to people receiving transfusions in hospitals. The need for blood was great during wartime—especially by military hospitals for soldiers who had been wounded in battle. Americans were encouraged to donate at Red Cross blood banks, and many did. Many black people wanted to give blood to the Red Cross to help wounded soldiers, but the Red Cross would not accept it. The Red Cross defended its policy saying they were acting on orders from the military.

In January 1942 the agency changed its policy and accepted blood from black donors for the first time. Even so, it segregated
the blood supplies. “Negro blood” was kept separate from “white blood.” Blood from black donors was carefully labeled to ensure it was used only for black people.

In St. Louis, Missouri, Gabriel Jones and Ellise Davis went through a humiliating experience when they tried to donate blood to a Red Cross blood drive. The two women were workers at an ordnance plant and answered the call for blood when the Red Cross set up a blood bank at the plant. They were especially eager to donate because they had been told that few blacks had contributed to the bank. They were told by the Red Cross representative that their blood would not be labeled “Negro blood.”

On the day of the blood drive the two women were standing in line with their white coworkers as they waited to donate their blood. To their surprise they were pulled from the line and escorted to an isolated room where Red Cross workers were preparing to withdraw their blood. The two women were surprised because Gabriel had talked to a woman at the Red Cross headquarters the day before the drive. At first she was told the Red Cross did not accept blood from blacks. Later she received a call from a woman at the Red Cross headquarters saying they
would
accept Gabriel's blood, but she didn't mention that Gabriel and Ellise would have to go through the experience in a separate area from their white coworkers. After being pulled into the separate room by officials, Gabriel and Ellise refused to give their blood to the Red Cross. They wanted to show their disapproval of the Red Cross segregation policy.

The policy of segregating blood continued because many Americans believed there was a difference between white people's blood and black people's blood. Many white people continued their racist beliefs that black people's blood must be kept separate so that it would not contaminate blood from white people. But even when scientists proved that blood characteristics
were not related to race, the Red Cross continued to label blood by race. Finally, in 1950—five years after the end of World War II—the Red Cross stopped the practice.

The Red Cross trained women as volunteer nurse aides all across the country. Black and white women volunteered to “pledge myself before God, to practice my duties as nurses aide faithfully.” And they agreed to fulfill their duties for no pay: “My only recompense will be satisfaction in a deed well done and in knowing that I am making a contribution to civilian defense and to suffering humanity.” Each volunteer completed 80 hours of training and promised to complete at least 150 hours of service per year after her training.

The first “Negro Red Cross Nurse's Aide Corps” in the state of Texas graduated in April 1943, and its members went to work at Holy Cross Hospital, an “institution for the care of Negro patients” in Austin. In Harlem, New York, Grace Crump Jones was responsible for training the Red Cross volunteers at the hospital. Clerks, housewives, stenographers, factory workers, teachers, and newspaperwomen volunteered to become “the nurse's extra hand.” Grace taught her first class of 25 volunteers to make beds, give baths, feed the sick, and admit and discharge patients. In Washington, DC, 54 prominent black housewives, civic workers, and community leaders made up the first class of Red Cross volunteer nurse aides at Howard University. After four weeks of lecture and classroom practice the volunteers completed three weeks of hospital probation. After they completed their training they served as assistants to the regular staff nurses in hospitals.

But not all Red Cross offices were open to black volunteers. Marie K. Clarke tried more than once to volunteer for nurse aide training with the Red Cross in Bridgeport, Connecticut. When she turned in an application in February 1942 the local Red Cross
office accepted her. But before she began the training, local leaders contacted her and told her she couldn't enter the current training class because she was black. It was the second time she had offered her services to the Red Cross only to be refused.

Marie appealed the decision to the national office of the Red Cross in Washington, DC. In her letter she wrote, “Is that a democratic stand for a large organization to take? The organization's work is carried on with Negro's money. We certainly donate to your campaigns. Why can't we help to train so that in times of emergency we can do our part?”

An official from the Red Cross gave an explanation for Marie's rejection: After completing the Red Cross nurse aide training, the nurse aides would serve as volunteers in the hospitals in the city. But none of the Bridgeport hospitals had black nurses. Therefore, there was no need for black nurse aides. The official explained that the Red Cross was acting as an agent of the hospitals in training the volunteers and that the hospitals simply had no need for black aides.

One hospital in Washington, DC, was happy to accept black women who had completed a seven-week Red Cross course for nurse aides in May 1943. The women were government workers and housewives who entered the course expecting to volunteer in local hospitals after they received their certificates. They finished the course and were certified to assist nurses and doctors in the obstetrics and pediatrics departments of local hospitals. A white superintendent of nurses at one hospital gladly accepted the 37 black volunteers. She put them to work immediately—scrubbing floors, cleaning restrooms, and emptying bedpans!

The volunteers walked off the job and refused to return until the superintendent allowed them to assist in the areas in which they had been trained. The superintendent defended her actions, saying that the black volunteer nurse aides' presence
had interfered with the training of “regular” student nurses. A representative for the black volunteers and the hospital officials met to settle the dispute. As a result, the superintendent allowed the black women to perform the duties for which they had been trained.

The Red Cross Overseas

The impressive work of the American Red Cross reached far beyond the cities, towns, and rural areas of America. When the Red Cross followed the American armies into battle at the fronts, black women were there to give their support. And while they may have been ignored by many Americans back home, they were revered by American soldiers across several continents.

In the fall of 1942 the Red Cross sent out a call for black men and women to volunteer for overseas duty. Articles appeared in black newspapers stating: “Help Wanted! Red Cross Seeks Qualified Colored Specialists for Overseas Assignments.” There were black soldiers fighting across the globe, and because white Red Cross workers typically didn't serve black soldiers—either because they refused to, or because they didn't have the opportunity to because of segregated facilities—there was a need for black Red Cross workers. There was a need for directors, associate directors, and recreation officers for the Red Cross service clubs located around the world. Some of the positions were paid positions. Black men and women answered the call. Typically, only men could fill the club directors' jobs, but women were placed as associate directors and staff assistants.

The first black female Red Cross workers who volunteered for overseas duty arrived in London in October 1942. Henrine Ward, C. Gladys Martin, Magnolia Latimer, Carol Jarrett, and Sydney Taylor Brown won the hearts of the British according
to newspaper reports. Their job was to supervise the recreation activities of the black soldiers and to promote good relations between black troops and British citizens. The newly opened Red Cross club they were to work at was a place where soldiers on leave from the front could enjoy wholesome cultural activities.

The staff at the London club was thrilled when in December they had a visit from First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt. Henrine Ward and Carol Jarrett were chosen to escort her to the reception room, where an official committee was waiting to greet her. The First Lady walked through the club chatting with soldiers. Henrine described how she felt that day. “I was thrilled and proud when the First Lady of our land heartily shook my hand 3,000 miles from home. I couldn't help but realize what a big thing she was doing to come so far to visit our troops and give spirit to those of us who had left home to make our colored warriors comfortable.”

There were three major branches of the Red Cross overseas—service clubs, field services, and clubmobiles. The service clubs were located in urban centers and served men on leave from the battlefield. The clubs had libraries, gyms, and auditoriums for dances. There were pool tables, darts, ping-pong, and pinball machines for use by the soldiers. The clubs had dining halls, and staff served three meals a day. There were beds and showers for the soldiers. The field services branch provided facilities wherever there was a large concentration of troops in remote places. The field services set up facilities near the troops using any buildings they could find—even if they were just huts. But the Red Cross workers rolled up their sleeves and made the facilities comfortable for troops who needed a break from the fighting. The clubmobiles were huge, specially designed “luxury” trucks. They traveled to remote places where soldiers were
stationed and where there was no train service. The clubmobiles were outfitted with playing cards, chewing gum, cigarettes, and candy—and doughnuts freshly made by the female Red Cross workers who were assigned to the trucks.

By May 1943 the Red Cross had sent black female Red Cross workers to Europe. Some were stationed at service clubs in England—in Liverpool, Bristol, and London. Others were assigned to clubmobiles or to field service.

Many soldiers thought the American women they met at the Red Cross clubs were special. But some seemed to have a distinctive appeal for the soldiers who were far from home. Camille King Jones of Chicago was always cheerful and endeared herself to the soldiers by participating in any club activities with a smile and a friendly word. Her attractive personality earned her recognition as the “unofficial sweetheart of all the colored soldiers” who came to London.

But the fact that a woman wore a Red Cross uniform didn't automatically mean she would be treated with respect. A black journalist named Vincent Lushington “Roi” Ottley reported an incident that illustrated how ugly some American servicemen could be when it came to living and working with black women—even those wearing Red Cross uniforms.

J. Clarice Brooks was a social worker in New York when she decided to join the Red Cross and volunteer for overseas duty. One of her assignments was at a club for black servicemen in Belfast, Ireland. One night five white American soldiers saw Clarice at a Red Cross club for white soldiers as she was waiting for a ride to her living quarters.

“There's the b— that's runnin' the club for n—,” one of the soldiers shouted.

Clarice replied, “This is a Red Cross club for American soldiers if they behave themselves.”

The soldiers wouldn't leave her alone. “What do you mean? N— are better behaved than we are?” one of them sneered.

Another soldier said to his friend, “Are you going to let her talk to you like that?”

“Let's beat her up,” another chimed in.

“Yeah, we know how to treat n—!” agreed another.

As the white soldiers began to move in on Clarice, a white officer approached the group and prevented the soldiers from harming her. Afterward, Clarice reported the incident to authorities and wanted to press charges against the soldiers. But, she said, nothing was ever done about the ugly incident.

Roi Ottley wrote about Clarice's experience in an article titled “Dixie Invades Britain.” He believed that British behavior toward black Americans was negatively influenced by white American soldiers. Some of those Americans were racist—like the ones who threatened Clarice—and Roi reported that those Americans encouraged the British to follow racist policies. The title of his article reflected his belief that the Jim Crow practices of Dixie—the American South—had traveled across the Atlantic. But the reality was that racism could be found in Britain as well as in Dixie. Racism was not exclusively American.

In 1943 when Carol Jarrett, Henrine Ward, Lucille McAllister, and Gertrude Furlowe arrived at the Red Cross club building in Bristol that was designated for black servicemen and -women, they found the building in rubble. It had been hit by enemy bombs, and the rooms were open to the skies. The floors were wet from rain, and only two rooms were livable. Within a year the Red Cross women—with help from the citizens of Bristol—had transformed the building. The newly refurbished Red Cross club had a cafeteria, sleeping rooms, and recreation facilities. Soldiers who needed a respite from the war could get a tasty meal and a peaceful night's sleep in a clean room. They
could dance with a pretty girl, and play basketball, tennis, badminton, horseshoes, ping-pong, and billiards.

The arrival of the first black Red Cross women in England caught the attention of British civilians and caused a sensation among the black American servicemen. But it was nothing compared to the commotion created when a single black woman reported for duty along the Alcan Highway in March 1943. About 1,300 men turned out to witness the arrival of Hazel Dixon Payne in
minus-70-degree
temperatures at Dawson Creek, British Columbia.

The men were part of the all-black 95th Engineers regiment of the US Army, and they were building a highway through Canada and Alaska. The road was known as the Alcan Highway. The soldiers had been in Alaska for a year and a half and hadn't seen a black woman in all that time. Hazel reported that, “The expression on their faces exhibited tension, anxiety, and a grand appreciation for a Negro woman.”