Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh (42 page)

11
Gardiner, A. (1961),
Egypt of the Pharaohs
, Oxford: 167.

12
For a full discussion of this stela, see Habachi, L. (1972),
The Second Stela of Kamose and his Struggle against the Hyksos Ruler and his Capital
, Gluckstadt.

13
All extracts from the autobiography of Ahmose, son of Ibana, are translated by S. R. Snape. For a published translation of this work, consult
Lichtheim, M. (1976),
Ancient Egyptian Literature II: the New Kingdom
, Los Angeles: 12–15.

14
For a basic description of Egyptian army life, consult Shaw, I. (1991),
Egyptian Warfare and Weapons
, Risborough. Shaw provides a more specialized reading list.

15
Extract from the obelisk inscription of King Hatchepsut, Karnak.

16
Wosret was a relatively obscure Upper Egyptian goddess.

17
Homer,
Iliad
, Book IX. Homer refers to the Egyptian Thebes as ‘hundred-gated’ to distinguish it from the Greek ‘seven-gated’ city of Thebes.

18
Keen, M. (1990),
English Society in the Middle Ages 1348–1500
, London: 161. Keen cites as an example the household of Earl Gilbert of Clare who moved on average every two to three weeks.

19
The English Queen Elizabeth I undertook similar tours of her country as a deliberate cost-cutting exercise, staying with local dignitaries in order to save the expense of maintaining a permanent court in London. A visit from the queen and her entourage could prove to be a ruinously expensive honour for a loyal subject.

20
Quoted in Kitchen, K. (1982),
Pharaoh Triumphant: the life and times of Ramesses II
, Warminster: 122.

21
Herodotus,
Histories
, II: 14.

22
Breasted, J. H. (1905),
A History of Egypt
, New York: 334

23
For a full translation, consult Lichtheim, M. (1976),
Ancient Egyptian Literature II: the New Kingdom
, Los Angeles: 168.

24
Stevenson Smith, W.,
The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt
, revised and edited by W. K. Simpson (1981), New Haven: 225.

25
Herodotus,
Histories
, II: 164.

Chapter 2 A Strong Family

1
Extract from the stela of King Ahmose, translated by S. R. Snape.

2
Some slight doubt has been cast over the royal parentage of Queen Ahmose Nefertari by an inscription recovered from Karnak which appears to read, ‘He [the king] clothed me [Ahmose Nefertari] when I was a nobody.’ However, the precise translation, and exact meaning of the translation, is by no means certain, and it is entirely possible that ‘nobody’ should be read as ‘orphan’. This matter is discussed in further detail in Redford, D. B. (1967),
History and Chronology of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt: seven studies
, Toronto: 30–31.

3
There is no direct proof that Meryt-Neith ever ruled Egypt as an independent king, but there is a strong body of circumstantial evidence which certainly points that way. This evidence is reviewed in detail in Tyldesley, J. A. (1994),
Daughters of Isis: Women of Ancient Egypt
, London: Chapters 6 and 7.

4
A division of labour which became formalized in the artistic convention which, despite the fact that Egypt was a racially well-mixed African country, decreed that men should always be depicted with a tanned brown skin, women with an indoor pallor.

5
Ever since the nineteenth-century Scottish lawyer McLennan published his
Primitive Societies
, in which he outlined a theory that all kinship and marriage patterns passed through the same four evolutionary stages – omiscuity, matriarchy, patriarchy and cognatic monogamy. The publication of J. G. Frazer's
The Golden Bough
(1914), London, also had a deep influence on his contemporaries working in the fields of archaeology and egyptology.

6
For a full explanation of all these terms, consult Fox, R. (1967),
Kinship and Marriage
, London.

7
Extract from the
Instructions of King Amenemhat I
; for a full translation of this text, see Lichtheim, M. (1973),
Ancient Egyptian Literature I: the Old and Middle Kingdoms
, Los Angeles: 135–9.

8
Extract from the New Kingdom Inscription of Scribe Any. For a full translation of this text, consult Lichtheim, M. (1976),
Ancient Egyptian Literature II: the New Kingdom
, Los Angeles: 135–46.

9
Tylor, J. J. and Griffith, F. L. (1894),
The Tomb of Paheri at el-Kab
, 11th Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Society, London: 25.

10
Redford, D. B. (1967),
History and Chronology of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt: seven studies
, Toronto: 65.

11
Consult Lerner, G. (1986),
The Creation of Patriarchy
, Oxford: 93. The same parallel is cited in Robins, G. (1993),
Women in Ancient Egypt
, London: 28.

12
From the marriage scarab of Amenhotep III.

13
Quoted in Robins, G. (1993),
Women in Ancient Egypt
, London: 30.

14
Lane, E. B. (1836),
Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians
, London.

15
This image certainly affected those late nineteenth-century egyptologists who went to Egypt determined to uncover a multitude of concubines and Ottoman-style harems; find them they did, mistakenly classifying many innocent servant girls, housekeepers and secondary queens in their quest for the elusive, erotic, ancient Egyptian whore of their dreams.

16
Blanch, L. (1959),
The Wilder Shores of Love
, London: 220.

17
See, for example, Shaarawi, H., translated by M. Badran (1986),
Harem Years: the memoirs of an Egyptian feminist (1879–1924)
, London. For an
account of a happy childhood spent in a traditional Islamic harem in Morocco, read Mernissi, F. (1994),
The Harem Within
, London.

18
This point is discussed in further detail in Dodson, A. (1990), Crown Prince Djhutmose and the royal sons of the Eighteenth Dynasty,
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
76: 87–96. An appendix lists the few known royal princes of the 18th Dynasty.

19
James, T. G. H. (1973), Egypt: from the expulsion of the Hyksos to Amenophis I, in I. E. S. Edwards
et al
. (eds),
The Cambridge Ancient History
, 3rd edition, Cambridge, 2.1: 305.

20
James, T. G. H. (1973), Egypt: from the expulsion of the Hyksos to Amenophis I, in I. E. S. Edwards
et al.
(eds),
The Cambridge Ancient History
, 3rd edition, Cambridge, 2.1: 306.

21
Gardiner, A. (1961),
Egypt of the Pharaohs
, Oxford: 130.

22
Extract from the autobiography of Ahmose, son of Ibana, translated by S. R. Snape. For a published translation of this work, consult Lichtheim, M. (1976),
Ancient Egyptian Literature II: the New Kingdom
, Los Angeles: 12–15.

23
Several historians claim, without citing any concrete evidence, that Tuthmosis I belonged to a collateral branch of the royal family; see for example Grimal, N. (1992), translated by I. Shaw,
A History of Ancient Egypt
, Oxford: 207.

24
Gardiner, A. (1961),
Egypt of the Pharaohs
, Oxford: 130.

25
For a detailed study of this subject, consult Murnane, W.J. (1977),
Ancient Egyptian Coregencies
, Chicago.

26
Translation taken from Watterson, B. (1991),
Women in Ancient Egypt
, Stroud: 56 and 60. For a full translation of this story, consult Lichtheim, M. (1980),
Ancient Egyptian Literature III: the Late Period
, Los Angeles: 127–8.

27
Translation taken from Watterson, B. (1991),
Women in Ancient Egypt
, Stroud: 56 and 60. For a full translation of this story, consult Lichtheim, M. (1980),
Ancient Egyptian Literature III: the Late Period
, Los Angeles: 127–8.

28
Wilkinson, J. G. (1837),
The Ancient Egyptians: their life and customs 2
, London: 224.

Chapter 3 Queen of Egypt

1
Extracts from the biography of Ineni, translated in Breasted, J. H. (1906),
Ancient Records of Egypt
, vol. 2, Chicago: 108, 116.

2
Extract from the autobiography of Ahmose, son of Ibana, translated by S. R. Snape. For a published translation of this work, consult Lichtheim, M. (1976),
Ancient Egyptian Literature II: the New Kingdom
, Los Angeles: 12–15.

3
Breasted, J. H.,
Ancient Records of Egypt
, vol. 2, Chicago: 106.

4
Figures suggested by Hopkins, K. B. (1983),
Death and Renewal: sociological studies in Roman History
, 2, Cambridge.

5
See Baines, J. and Eyre, C. J. (1983), Four Notes on Literacy,
Goettinger Miszellen
61: 65–96.

6
For a discussion of Prince Ramose, see Snape, S. R. (1985), Ramose Restored: a royal prince and his mortuary cult,
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 71: 180–83
. There is virtually no evidence to support the existence of a further three sons (named Binpu, Nekenkhal and Ahmose) who are occasionally cited as royal princes but who, were they truly the sons of Tuthmosis and Ahmose, must have died in early childhood before they could make any impact on the historical record.

7
Egyptology is by no means an exact science, and it remains a possibility that we may be muddling up two Mutnofrets, one the concubine of Tuthmosis I and mother of Tuthmosis II, and one a royal princess, the daughter of Tuthmosis I and sister of Tuthmosis II and Hatchepsut.

8
Cartouche is the name given to the rectangular enclosure, intended to represent a tied loop of rope, always drawn around the two principal names of the kings of Egypt.

9
Sethe, K. (1896),
Die Thronwirren unter den Nachfolgern Königs Tuthmosis I, ihr Verlauf und ihre Bedeutung
, Leipzig.

10
This story is told more fully in Davies, W V. (1982), Thebes, in T. G. H. James (ed.),
Excavating in Egypt: the Egypt Exploration Society 1882–1992
, London: 6. It was evidently Mme Naville who posed the threat to the continuation of the archaeological work; bereft of her kitchen, she demanded that she and her husband return immediately to Switzerland. It is tempting to speculate that it was Naville's relationship with his forceful wife which stimulated his interest in Hatchepsut, another forceful woman.

11
Edgerton, W. F. (1933),
The Tuthmoside Succession
, Chicago.

12
Hayes, W. C. (1935),
Royal Sarcophagi of the XVIII Dynasty
, Princeton.

13
Winlock, H. E. (1932), The Egyptian Expedition 1930–31,
Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art New York
32.2: 5–10.

14
Carter himself initially believed that the two women might be the nurses of Tuthmosis IV.

15
Gardiner, A. (1961),
Egypt of the Pharaohs
, Oxford: 180.

16
Winlock, H. E. (1928), The Egyptian Expedition 1925–1927,
Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art New York
23.2:47.

17
Hayes, W. C. (1973), Egypt: Internal Affairs from Tuthmosis I to the death of Amenophis III, in I.E. S. Edwards
et al
. (eds),
Cambridge Ancient History
, 3rd edition, Cambridge, 2.1: 316.

18
Budge, E. A. W. (1902),
Egypt and her Asiatic Empire
, London: 4. Budge is by no means the only author to assume that Hatchepsut ruled on behalf of her weaker brother; see, for example, Hayes, W. C. (1935),
Royal Sarcophagi of the XVIII Dynasty
, Princeton: 145. Hayes cites several earlier references.

19
Carter, H. (1917), A Tomb Prepared for Queen Hatshepsuit and other recent discoveries at Thebes,
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
4: 114.

20
Carter, H. (1917), A Tomb Prepared for Queen Hatshepsuit and other recent discoveries at Thebes,
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
4:118.

21
Hayes, W. C. (1935),
Royal Sarcophagi of the XVIII Dynasty
, Princeton: 67.

22
Sethe, K., Helck W
et al
. (1906–58),
Urkunden der 18. Dynastie
, Leipzig and Berlin: 34.

23
Discussed in Robins, G. (1993),
Women in Ancient Egypt
, London: 49.