 | 2949; Edward I. Donnerstein and Daniel G. Linz, "The Question of Pornography: It Is Not Sex, but Violence, That Is an Obscenity in Our Society,"
Psychology Today
(December 1986), 5659; Edward Donnerstein, Daniel Linz, and Steven Penrod, "Is It the Sex or Is It the Violence?," in their
The Question of Pornography: Research Findings and Policy Implications
(New York: Free Press, 1987), 10836; James Cheek and Ted Guloien, reporting in
Pornography: Research Advances and Policy Considerations
, ed. Dolf Zillmann and Bryant Jennings (Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1989), 15984. Catharine MacKinnon speculates that the harm pornography does may be so pervasive that it is not measurable or causally identifiable by standard methods. See MacKinnon,
Feminism Unmodified
, 27172, n. 53. For arguments for a causal connection between pornography and violence against women, see Russell, "Pornography and Rape,'' 12050. For some criticisms of such models, see F. M. Christensen,
Pornography: The Other Side
(New York: Praeger, 1990), chaps. 7, 9, 10, and 11; Lynne Segal, "Does Pornography Cause Violence?: The Search for Evidence," in Gibson and Gibson,
Dirty Looks
, 521; Alison King, "Mystery and Imagination: The Case of Pornography Effects Studies," in Assiter and Carol,
Bad Girls and Dirty Pictures
, 5787; Alan Soble, "Pornography and the Social Sciences," in Soble,
The Philosophy of Sex
(1991), 31731.
|
| 25. For a description and critique of the 1983 Minneapolis Pornography Ordinance authored by MacKinnon and Dworkin, see Lisa Duggan, Nan Hunter, and Carole S. Vance, "False Promises: Feminist Antipornography Legislation in the U.S.," in
Women against Censorship
, ed. Varda Burstyn (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1985), 13051; also see Lisa Duggan and Nan D. Hunter,
Sex Wars: Sexual Dissent and Political Culture
(New York: Routledge, 1995). Arguments in favor of the ordinance as an extension of civil liberties for women can be found in Andrea Dworkin,
Pornography
, xxviiixxxiv; MacKinnon,
Feminism Unmodified
, 17579, 2015; John Stoltenberg, "Pornography and Freedom," in Russell,
Making Violence Sexy
, 7375.
|
| 26. Gail Pheterson, "Editor's Note," in Pheterson,
A Vindication of the Rights of Whores
, 149.
|
| 27. See Rachel West, "U.S. PROStitutes Collective," in Delacoste and Alexander,
Sex Work
, 279; Margaret Valentino and Mavis Johnson, "On the Game and On the Move," in Jaget,
Prostitutes
, 2324; Alexander, "Prostitution," 195, 19899; Pheterson, "Not Repeating History," 1516; Cathy, "Unveiling," in Bell,
Good Girls/Bad Girls
, 89.
|
| 28. The increase in upper-income clubs with female dancers working as "independent contractors," even though their hours are fixed by club managers and their clothing and behavior restricted, has prompted questions about their wages and lack of benefits. See Alan Abrahamson, "Coverage of Exotic Entertainers Is Questioned,"
Los Angeles Times
, 30 November 1992.
|
| 29. Rosemarie Tong notes that given the increase in male homosexual prostitutes and the limited increase in lesbian and heterosexual male prostitutes, we can say that "a considerate portion of prostitutes are men and a small minority of the customers are women." See
Women, Sex, and the Law
, 6162, n. 1. Because my interest is in the degrading nature of women's sex work, the sex workers to which I will refer are women unless otherwise noted. However, there is some fascinating work to be done on the nature of the sex objectification of men in the sex trade. Some of the asymmetries between male and female sex workers are discussed later in this chapter; also see the interviews with Bill, Merlin, and Ron in Stoller,
Porn
, 2963, 183213; Jerry Butler, as told to Robert Rimmer and Catherine Tavel,
Raw Talent: The Adult Film Industry as Seen by Its Most Popular Male Star
(Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1990); Linda Williams,
Hard Core: Power, Pleasure, and the "Frenzy of the Visible"
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); Michael Kimmel, ed.,
Men Confront Pornography
(New York: Crown, 1989).
|
|
