Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World (55 page)

29.
Mishra, S. (1995) ‘The chronology of the Indian stone age: Impact of recent absolute and relative dating attempts’
Man and Environment
20
(2): 11–17; Acharya, S.K. and Basu, P.K. (1993) ‘Toba ash on the Indian subcontinent and its implications for correlation of Late Pleistocene alluvium’
Quaternary Research
40
: 10–19.

30.
Acharya and Basu op. cit. The date of such a changeover may not be exactly 74,000 years ago: it depends on exact stratigraphic analysis of the deposits. Acharya and Basu broadly bracket this whole stratigraphic unit as ‘Late Pleistocene’, from 40,000 to 100,000 years ago.

31.
McKie. R. (2000)
Ape-man
(BBC Worldwide, London).

32.
dated to around 130,000 years ago
: See the discussion of dating estimates in McBrearty and Brooks op. cit.
modern humans as the only survivor
: The deepest branch in the mtDNA tree (190,000 years ago, see panel diagram) is between L1a, found in the San of southern Africa, and the rest. This is consistent with isolation and separation of groups during OIS 6 and survival of only two branches from that time, possibly in southern and East Africa.

33.
Oppenheimer, S. (1998)
Eden in the East: The Drowned Continent of Southeast Asia
(Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London).

34.
Caton-Thompson, G. (1944)
The Tombs and Moon Temple of Hureidha (Hadhramaut)
(Oxford University Press/The Society of Antiquaries).

35.
Walter, R.C. et al. (2000) ‘Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial’
Nature
405
: 65–9. The actual dating was to between 118,000 and 132,000 years ago.

36.
Watson et al., op. cit., originally estimated 60,000–80,000 years ago for the out-of-Africa expansion, but see note 22, where the mean age, ± SE) of L3 would be 83,000 (± 6,000) years. For confirmation of the age of L3 at 83,000 years by another dating method, see Hill, C. et al. (2003) ‘Mitochondrial DNA variation in the Orang Asli of the Malay Peninsula’ (in preparation) (L3 age 83,500 ± SE 8,400 years).

37.
oceanographic evidence denies
: Rohling et al., op. cit.; Fenton et al., op. cit.
Such an event
: Red Sea aplanktonic episodes occurring at OIS 12, 6, and 2, ibid.

38.
OIS 4; see Dansgaard, W. et al. (1993) ‘Evidence for general instability of past climate from a 250–kyr ice-core record’
Nature
364
: 218–20.

39.
Rohling et al., op. cit.; Fenton et al., op. cit.; Siddall, M. et al. (2003) ‘Sea-level fluctuations during the last glacial cycle’
Nature
423
: 853–8.

40.
Rohling et al., op. cit.; Fenton et al., op. cit.; Siddall et al., op. cit.

41.
Globigerinoides sacculifer
, see ibid.

42.
Schultz, H. et al. (1998) ‘Correlation between Arabian Sea and Greenland climate oscillations of the past 110,000 years’
Nature
393
: 54–7.

43.
Majid, Z. (1998) ‘Radiocarbon dates and culture sequence in the Lenggong Valley and beyond’
Malaysia Museums Journal
34
: 241–9.

44.
Kivisild, T. et al. (2000) ‘A likely post-LGM impact of Western Asian maternal lineages to Eastern Africans’ Cold Spring Harbour Symposium on Human Origins & Disease. New York.

45.
74,000 years
: Kivisild, T. et al. (1999) ‘The place of the Indian mitochondrial DNA variants in the global network of maternal lineages and the peopling of the Old World’ in S.S. Papiha et al. (eds)
Genomic Diversity: Applications in Human Population Genetics
(Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York) pp. 135–52.
75,000 years
: Redd, A.J. and Stoneking, M. (1999) ‘Peopling of Sahul: mtDNA variation in aboriginal Australian and Papua New Guinean populations’
American Journal of Human Genetics
65
: 808–28.
73,000 years
: Kivisild, T. et al. (2003) ‘The genetic heritage of the earliest settlers persists both in Indian tribal and caste populations’
American Journal of Human Genetics
72
: 313–33. Equal and more ancient figures have been estimated in China for two primary derivatives of the N clan: B, 74,600 ± 18,700 years ago, and R9, 81,400 ± 24,600 years ago; see Yong-Gang Yao et al. (2002) ‘Phylogeographic differentiation of mitochondrial DNA in Han Chinese’
American Journal of Human Genetics
70
: 635–51.

46.
For Asian descendants, see Kivisild et al. (2003) op. cit.; Yong-Gang Yao et al. op. cit. For Australian descendants, see Redd and Stoneking op. cit.

47.
Schultz et al., op. cit.

48.
no more than 47,000 years old
: or 50,000 years, depending on whether radiocarbon dates are corrected – see
Chapter 3
.
The Belgian archaeologist Marcel Otte
: Otte, M. (2003)
The Aurignacian in Asia
(in press), citing inter alia Olszewski, D.I. and Dibble, H.L. (1994) ‘The Zagros Aurignacian’
Current Anthropology
35
(1): 68–75; and Otte, M. (2000) ‘The history of European populations as seen by archaeology’ in C. Renfrew and K. Boyle (eds)
Archaeogenetics: DNA and the Population Prehistory of Europe
(MacDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge) pp. 139–41.

49.
a date of 28,000 years ago
: Joshi, R.V. (1994) ‘South Asia in the period of
Homo sapiens sapiens
up to the beginnings of food production (Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic)’ in S.J. De Laet (ed.)
The History of Humanity
Vol. 1 (Routledge, London) pp. 256–8.
between 64,000 and 74,000 years ago
: Deraniyagala, S.U. (2001)
Prehistory of Sri Lanka
(Department of Archaeological Survey, Government of Sri Lanka) pp. 685–702.

Chapter 2

1.
Gamble, C. (1994)
Timewalkers
(Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA) p. 160, Table 8.2, p. 160.

2.
Klein, R. G. (1989)
The Human Career: Human Biological and Cultural Origins
(Chicago University Press).

3.
Diamond, J. (1998)
Guns, Germs, and Steel
(Jonathan Cape, London).

4.
Lawrence, P. (1964)
Road Belong Cargo: A Study of the Cargo Movement in the Southern Madang District New Guinea
(Melbourne University Press/Manchester University Press).

5.
Middle Palaeolithic technology
: See the discussion, and especially Table 1 and Figures 2 and 13, in McBrearty, S. and Brooks, A.S. (2000) ‘The revolution that wasn’t: A new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior’
Journal of Human Evolution
39
: 453–563. See also the discussion in Foley, R. and Lahr, M. (1997) ‘Mode 3 technologies and the evolution of modern humans’
Cambridge Archaeological Journal
7
(1): 3–36.
Confusingly, Middle Palaeolithic stone tools
: See the simplified discussion, ibid.

6.
McBrearty and Brooks op. cit.; Foley and Lahr op. cit.

7.
appeared in India about 150,000 years ago
: Mishra, S. (1995) ‘The chronology of the Indian Stone Age: Impact of recent absolute and relative dating attempts’
Man and Environment
20
(2): 11–17.
the Narmada skull
: Stringer, C. (1996) ‘Current issues in modern human origins’ in W.E. Meikle et al. (eds)
Contemporary Issues in Human Evolution
(California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco) pp. 115–34.

8.
Harrison, T. (1959) ‘New archaeological and ethnological results from Niah caves, Sarawak’
Man
59
: 1–8.

9.
I am grateful to Andrew Sherratt of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, who patiently took me through the Lower, Middle, and Upper Palaeolithic sequence again.

10.
Foley and Lahr op. cit. This argument falls down for the Far East (see
Chapters 4
–6). In any case, as we shall see, blades were probably invented several times earlier during the Middle Palaeolithic, although not used for the same variety of purposes.

11.
computer analysis of sites and dates
: Bocquet-Appel, J.-P. and Demars, P.Y. (2000) ‘Neanderthal contraction and modern human colonization of Europe’
Antiquity
74
: 544–52; see also Davies W. (2001) ‘A very model of a modern human industry: New perspectives on the origins and spread of the Aurignacian in Europe’
Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society
67
: 195–217.
picked up quite a few ‘modern’ habits
: An example of this ‘acquired technology’ is the ‘Chatelperronian’ industry in southern France, which was a later Upper Palaeolithic tradition associated with Neanderthals. Other so-called transitional stone industries have been attributed to the Neanderthals’ attempts to adapt to the pace of change. These include the Uluzzian in Italy and, much earlier in eastern Europe at the time of first appearance of moderns there around 40,000 years ago, the Szeletian, the Bohunician, and the Micoquian (named after the locations where characteristic tools were found). Unfortunately for this argument, there have always been fewer bones than stones in the record, so that it has not been absolutely confirmed who was responsible for these last four – Neanderthals or moderns. See Bocquet-Appel and Demars op. cit.

12.
being used even by Neanderthals
and
whether a particular set of bones was deliberately buried
: Solecki, R. (1972)
Shanidar: The Humanity of Neanderthal Man
(Allen Lane, London). See also the critical discussion of such evidence of early burials in Klein, R.G. (1999)
The Human Career: Human Biological and Cultural Origins
, 2 edn (Chicago University Press) pp. 395, 469–70, 550–53.

13.
Klein (1999) op. cit. pp. 469–70.

14.
Gamble op. cit. p. 161.

15.
Both quotes from Klein (1989) op. cit. pp. 358–60.

16.
second edition of his book
: Klein, R.G. (1999) op. cit.
‘to me it suggests that . . .’
: ibid. pp. 593–4.

17.
Takahata, N. and Satta, Y. (1998). ‘Footprints of intragenic recombination at HLA locus’
Immunogenetics
47
: 430–41.

18.
For instance, a comparison of mtDNA types between Europe and Australia found no overlap between the well delineated Caucasian N haplogroups (Table 2 of Richards, M. et al. (2000) ‘Tracing European founder lineages in the Near Eastern mtDNA pool’
American Journal of Human Genetics
67
: 1251–76; Richards, M. and Macaulay, V. (2000) ‘Genetic data and the colonization of Europe: Genealogies and founders’ in C. Renfrew and K. Boyle (eds)
Archaeogenetics: DNA and the Population Prehistory of Europe
(MacDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge) pp. 139–41), and Australian or New Guinean haplotypes (
Figure 2
of Redd, A.J. and Stoneking, M. (1999) ‘Peopling of Sahul: mtDNA variation in Aboriginal Australian and Papua New Guinean populations’
American Journal of Human Genetics
65
: 808–28). See also for Y chromosome: Karafet, T.M. et al. (1999) ‘Ancestral Asian source(s) of New World Y-chromosome founder haplotypes’
American Journal of Human Genetics
64
: 817–31. Crucially, none of the unique European Y or mtDNA clades can be found in full-blooded Aboriginal Australians.

19.
Foley and Lahr op. cit. But see also the discussion in McBrearty and Collins op. cit. pp. 480–85.

20.
Foley, R. and Lahr, M. op. cit.

21.
McBrearty and Brooks op. cit.

22.
Ibid.

23.
Tanzania, around 70,000 years ago
: ibid.
Sri Lanka, around 30,000 years ago
: Joshi, R.V. (1994) ‘South Asia in the period of
Homo sapiens sapiens
up to the beginnings of food production (Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic)’ in S.J. De Laet (ed.)
The History of Humanity
Vol. 1 (Routledge, Paris London UNESCO) pp. 256–8.

24.
McBrearty and Brooks op. cit. p. 524.

25.
Ibid p. 524.

26.
Ibid. p. 526.

27.
Clottes, J. et al. (1995) ‘Radiocarbon dates for the Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc cave’
International Newsletter on Rock Art (INORA)
11
: 1–2.