Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World (59 page)

18.
Majid, Z. and Tjia, H.D. (1988) ‘Kota Tampan, Perak: The geological and archaeological evidence for a late Pleistocene site’
Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
61
: 123–34; Majid, Z. (1998) ‘Radiocarbon dates and culture sequence in the Lenggong Valley and beyond’
Malaysia Museums Journal
34
: 241–9. The end of the Lenggong Valley culture could have been as recent as 4,000 years ago (i.e. into the Iron Age of the region), if the ‘old carbon effect’ of freshwater shell in karstic formations is taken into account (David Bulbeck (2002) personal communication).

19.
Two of the highest authorities
: ‘Whatever the final decision on age, the tools appear to be the handiwork of anatomically modern humans’ – Bellwood, P. (1997)
Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago
revised edn (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu) p. 68; Bowdler, S. (1992) ‘The earliest Australian stone tools and implications for Southeast Asia’
Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin
12
: 10–22. The description of Southeast Asian and Australian Palaeolithic tools as ‘crude’ or unsophisticated is more commonly used by archaeologists working in Europe or Africa. Such an appellation is often regarded by archaeologists in Australasia as a biologically determinist and Eurocentric value judgement.
tools found in the Lenggong Valley are too recent
: Majid (1998) op. cit.
finding by her team of the ‘Perak Man’
: Majid, Z. (ed.) (1994)
The Excavation of Gua Gunung Runtuh and the Discovery of the Perak Man in Malaysia
(Department of Museums and Antiquity, Malaysia).
He was about 10,000 years old
: or as recent as 7,000–8,000 years old if, again, the ‘old carbon effect’ of freshwater shell in karstic formations is taken into account, so Perak Man is probably slightly less than 10,000 years old (David Bulbeck (2002) personal communication).

20.
these kinds of tools
(i.e. Mode 1/Chopper-chopping tool complex): see Shutler, R. Jr (1995) ‘Hominid cultural evolution as seen from the archaeological evidence in Southeast Asia’, Conference papers on Archaeology in Southeast Asia, Publ. Hong Kong University Museum, Hong Kong, 1995. In this paper Shutler discounts the very early dates of the Pacitanian stone tool culture in Java. In Bowdler’s reviews (e.g. op. cit.) she also seems to argue that the appearance of any tools in Southeast Asia and the Antipodes coincides with the
appearance of modern humans in the region. It has been claimed that Cabengian and Pacitanian artefacts from, respectively, Sulawesi and Java may indicate modern human migrations in Island Southeast Asia by at least 74,000 years ago: Keates, S. and Bartstra, G.-J. (2001) ‘Observations on Cabengian and Pacitanian artefacts from Island Southeast Asia’,
Quärtar
, Band
51/52
: 9–32.

21.
Bellwood op. cit. pp. 68, 160, 168, 316.

22.
Geochemical analysis shows that the Kota Tampan ash belongs to the great 74,000-year-old eruption that also covered India – Shane, P. et al. (1995) ‘New geochemical evidence for the youngest Toba tuff in India’
Quaternary Research
44
: 200–204; Westgate, J.A. et al. (1998) ‘All Toba tephra occurrences across peninsular India belong to the 75,000 year bp eruption’
Quaternary Research
50
: 107–12; Acharya, S.K. and Basu, P.K. (1993) ‘Toba ash on the Indian subcontinent and its implications for correlation of Late Pleistocene alluvium’
Quaternary Research
40
: 10–19. Acharya and Basu note that both Middle and Upper Palaeolithic tools occur in Toba ash-bearing deposits.

23.
Some argue
: see e.g. the discussion in Bulbeck, D. (1996) ‘Holocene biological evolution of the Malay Peninsula aborigines (Orang Asli)’
Perspectives in Human Biology
2
: 37–61.
In the next chapter
: see also Bulbeck, D. (1999) ‘Current biological research on Southeast Asia’s Negritos’
SPAFA Journal
9
(2): 14–22; Rayner, D. and Bulbeck, D. (2001) ‘Dental morphology of the “Orang Asli” aborigines of the Malay Peninsula’ in M. Henneberg (ed.)
Causes and Effects of Human Variation
(Australasian Society for Human Biology, University of Adelaide) pp. 19–41.

24.
Hill et al. (2003) ‘Mitochondrial DNA variation in the Orang Asli of the Malay Peninsula’ (in press)

25.
A uranium date of 67,000 years
: +6000 –5000, Wu, X. (1992) ‘The origin and dispersal of anatomically modern humans in East and Southeast Asia’ in T. Akazawa et al. (eds)
The Evolution and Dispersal of Modern Humans in Asia
(Hokusen-sha, Tokyo) pp. 373–8.
but has been questioned
: Brown, P. (1999) ‘The first modern East Asians? Another look at Upper Cave 101, Liujiang and Minatogawa 1’ in K. Omoto (ed.)
Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the Origins of the Japanese
(International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto) pp. 105–30.
In December 2002, a Chinese group
: Shen Guanjun et al. (2002) ‘U-series dating of Liujiang hominid site in Guanxi, Southern China’
Journal of Human Evolution
43
: 817–29; see also the comment in
Science News Online
21 December 2002.
Their preferred dating of 111,000–139,000 years ago
: Shen and colleagues (ibid.) go even further, suggesting that, if correct, the older dates could raise the possibility that the abortive exodus to the Levant 120,000 years ago may not have been quite so fruitless. The precise answer will have to wait for direct dating of the skull itself or of its calcite accretions.

26.
Several studies of Australian maternal clans
: See the discussion and references in note 4.
large studies of Y chromosomes
: Hammer, M.F. et al. (2001) ‘Hierarchical patterns of global human Y-chromosome diversity’
Molecular Biology and Evolution
18
(7): 1189–203; Underhill, P.A. et al. (2000) ‘Y-chromosome sequence variation and the history of human populations’ Nature
Genetics
26
: 358–61; Kayser, M. et al. (2001) ‘Independent histories of human Y chromosomes from Melanesia and Australia’
American Journal of Human Genetics
68:
173–90. But see the discussion on prehistoric mtDNA from robust human KS8 discussed in note 6.
same pattern is seen with genetic markers
: i.e. nuclear markers. The best
example of this is seen in a worldwide study of Alu inserts, where a neighbour-joining tree has one branch from Africa giving rise to the rest of the world, showing the Pakistanis, New Guineans, and Australians near the origin of this branch. If the Antipodes were populated by separate migrations, these would form a separate branch from the African root. See Fig. 2 in Stoneking, M. et al. (1997) ‘Alu insertion polymorphisms and human evolution: Evidence for a larger population size in Africa’
Genome Research
7
: 1061–71. For individual nuclear gene trees, see also Tishkoff, S.A. et al. (1996) ‘Global patterns of linkage disequilibrium at the CD4 locus and modern human origins’
Science
271
: 1380–97; Alonso, S. and Armour, J.A.L. (2001) ‘A highly variable segment of human subterminal 16p reveals a history of population growth for modern humans outside Africa’
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA
98
: 864–9.
dates estimated for the African L3 cluster expansion
: 77,000 ± 2,400 years, Watson, E. et al. (1997) ‘Mitochondrial footprints of human expansions in Africa’
American Journal of Human Genetics
61
: 691–704. This estimate can now be revised with improved resolution of the tree round the L3 node. A more up-to-date estimate of 83,000 years (Oppenheimer, S.J. unpublished, but again using calculation of ‘rho’) can be calculated by using complete sequence data from Ingman et al., op. cit. (The ‘rho’ methods average mutations in daughter branches and multiply by a calibrated constant – Forster, P. et al. (1996) ‘Origin and evolution of Native American mtDNA variation: A reappraisal’
American Journal of Human Genetics
59
: 935–45. and Saillard, J. et al. (2000) ‘mtDNA variation among Greenland Eskimos: The edge of the Beringian expansion’
American Journal of Human Genetics
67
: 718–26.) This method of estimation also shows that both M and N and the African branches of L3 and L1c re-expanded around 70,000 years ago, presumably after the worldwide effects of the Toba explosion (shown in Figure 8.2). See also the re-estimate of L3 at 83,500 years by an independent method based on maximum likelihood in Hill C. et al. (in preparation) op. cit.

27.
different frequencies outside Africa
(of DNA variants of functioning nuclear genes): For instance beta globin RFLP haplotypes see Wainscoat et al. (1986) ‘Evolutionary relationships of human populations from an analysis of nuclear DNA polymophisms’
Nature
319
: 491–3. For beta globin genes see Harding, R.M. et al. (1997) ‘Archaic African
and
Asian lineages in the genetic ancestry of modern humans’
American Journal of Human Genetics
60
: 772–89. For GM system see Walter, H. (1998)
Populationsgenetik der Blutgruppensystems des Menschen
(E. Schweizer’bartsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart). For X chromosome see Harris, E.E. and Hey, J. (1999) ‘X chromosome evidence for ancient human histories’
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA
96
: 3320–24. For dystrophin gene see Labuda, D. et al. (2000) ‘Archaic lineages in the history of modern humans’
Genetics
156
: 799–808.
The absence of specific extra packets
: e.g. Alu insertions, Stoneking et al. (1997) op. cit.

28.
See especially Stoneking et al. (1997) op. cit.; Mountain, J.L. and Cavalli-Sforza, L.L. (1994) ‘Inference of human evolution through cladistic analysis of nuclear DNA restriction polymorphisms’
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA
91
: 6515–19. But also: (a) African beta globin RFLP haplotypes ‘– + – +’ and ‘– – +’ are found only in Oceania, Wainscoat et al., op. cit.; (b) African beta globin haplotypes C3 and A2 are found only in Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu, Harding et al. (1997) op. cit.; (c) Gm alleles 7 (and 6) are closest to African 8 and commonest in Sahul, while allele 7 is specific to Sahul – Table 5.2 of
Propert, D. (1989) ‘Immunoglobin allotypes’, in A.V.S. Hill and S.W. Serjeantson (eds)
The Colonization of the Pacific: A Genetic Trail
(Clarendon Press, Oxford) pp. 194–214; (d) X chromosome: A, B, O, and D are haplogroups shared between Africa and the rest of the world, Sahul has all haplogroups except B – Kaessmann, H. et al. (1999) ‘DNA sequence variation in a non-coding region of low recombination on the human chromosome’
Nature Genetics
22
: 78–81; (e) Chromosome 21: Oceania shares more haplotypes with Africa than does any other region – Li Jin et al., op. cit.

29.
This paragraph, see: Fig. 2 in Stoneking et al. (1997) op. cit., southern Arabia being represented in this study by the United Arab Emirates. See also Fig. 2 in Watkins et al. (2001) op. cit.

30.
although some of these markers
: i.e. non-African ‘L3*’, Richards M. et al. (2003) ‘Extensive female-mediated gene flow from sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern Arab populations’
American Journal of Human Genetics
72
: 1058–64.
arrived from Africa more recently
: ancient Exodus types would be non-African and derived from L3, e.g. non-African L3*, M*, and N* super-clans; recent intrusions would include the ‘older’ specific African branches L1, L2, and African-specific L3 subgroups (for definitions/nomenclature see ibid. and Richards and Macaulay (2000) op. cit.; see also the mtDNA tree at end of this book Fig 8.2). What is clear is that, unlike North Africans and Levantines, the Hadramaut also carry roots and most of the primary branches of the Eurasian super-clans M and N (namely M*, M1, M2, M7, D, N1b, R1, R2, X, F, Pre-HV, HV1, H, U*,U2, U5, U7, J*, J1, J1b, J2, T*, T1, and K; data from Richards et al. (2003) op. cit.
a higher rate of the African ancestral types
: See Table 1 and Fig. 2 in Watkins et al. (2001) op. cit.

31.
shares some ancient mtDNA links
: i.e. both U/HV haplogroups as well as M haplogroup, e.g. U2i, U7, and Pre-HV, as well as M types: M*, M1, M2b, M4, and M-C. See Kivisild, T. et al. (1999a) ‘The place of the Indian mitochondrial DNA variants in the global network of maternal lineages and the peopling of the Old World’ in S.S. Papiha et al. (eds)
Genomic Diversity: Applications in Human Population Genetics
(Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York) pp. 135–52.
They have an African Y-chromosome marker
: Hammer YAP+ Haplotype 5a defined by PN1, Mehdi, S.Q. et al. (1999) ‘The origins of Pakistani populations: Evidence from Y chromosome markers’ in S.S. Papiha et al. (eds)
Genome Diversity: Applications in Human Populations
(Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York) pp. 83–91. Hammer argues that the presence of this haplotype (and its ancestral type) in Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Iran (and its virtual absence from Ethiopia) supports his view that the YAP+ mutation originally occurred outside Africa – Altheide, T.K. and Hammer, M.F. (1997) ‘Evidence for a possible Asian Origin of YAP+ Y chromosomes’
American Journal of Human Genetics
61
: 462–6. I agree, although the conventional opposite view – that this represents a more recent introduction by the slave trade from sub-Saharan Africa – is still possible.
Another unique Y-chromosome marker appears outside Africa only in this region
: Underhill Haplotype 12, Underhill et al., op. cit.
an early branch off the Out-of-Africa Adam
: Underhill Haplotypes 90–91, ibid.; consensus haplogroup L in Kivisild et al (2003) op. cit. and Wells R.S. et al. (2001) ‘The Eurasian heartland: a continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity’
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA
98
: 10244–9.