Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World (63 page)

40.
X:
a single report from southern Siberia
: Derenko, M.V. et al. (2001) ‘The presence of mitochondrial Haplogroup X in Altaians from South Siberia’
American Journal of Human Genetics
69
: 237–41.
up to 30,000 years old
: Brown et al., op. cit.

41.
D/E, C, and F are the new consensus names respectively for YAP+, RPS4Y/M216, and M89 – see The Y Chromosome Consortium (2002) ‘A nomenclature system for the tree of human Y-chromosomal binary haplogroups’
Genome Research
12
: 339–48.

42.
Eastern Indonesia, Australia, and New Guinea
: Haplotype 48 to eastern Indonesia and New Guinea, and Haplotype 49 to Australia;
around the Indo-Pacific coast to Japan
: Haplotype 50;
a unique progenitor Asian son
: M217 or Haplotype 52, giving rise to Haplotypes 51 and 53 – all haplotypes in Underhill, P.A. et al. (2001) ‘The phylogeography of Y-chromosome binary haplotypes and the origins of modern human populations’
Annals of Human Genetics
65
: 43–62.
into Mongolia and Central Asia
: Haplogroups 21–26 and 31–34, respectively, Karafet, T.M. et al. (1999) ‘Ancestral Asian source(s) of New World Y-chromosome founder haplotypes’
American Journal of Human Genetics
64
: 817–31.
into the Americas
: ibid.; Underhill et al., op. cit.; Underhill, P.A. et al. (2000) ‘Y-chromosome sequence variation and the history of human populations’
Nature Genetics
26
: 358–61.

43.
no further north than Korea
: Karafet et al., op. cit.
Mongolia and the Russian Altai
: Data in ibid.; see also data in Bing Su et al. (1999) ‘Y-chromosome evidence for a northward migration of modern humans into Eastern Asia during the last ice age’
American Journal of Human Genetics
65
: 1718–24.

44.
12,127 Asians and Pacific islanders
: M89 (defines Consensus group F/Seth) in Ke, Y. et al. (2001) ‘African origin of modern humans in East Asia: A tale of 12,000 Y chromosomes’
Science
292
: 1151–2. This paper incidentally also shows that all these 12,127 Asians share the M168 Out-of-Africa Adam mutation as do 99.9% of other non-Africans.
as several geneticists have suggested
: The view that Seth came as a later exodus from Africa is elaborated in Underhill et al. (2001) op. cit. For
Seth types, in relict beachcomber populations
: See (a) M89 (consensus Group F) 23% and M95 (consensus Group O) 65% respectively in Orang Asli aboriginals of the Malay Peninsula – see data in Bing Su et al. (2000) ‘Polynesian
origins: Insights from the Y chromosome’
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA
97
: 8225–8; (b) M9 (consensus Group K including Subgroups O, L, and P) 100% in Greater Andamans, while Asian YAP+ (Cain or consensus Group D) 100% in other Andaman Islanders – see data in Thangaraj, K. et al. (2002) ‘Genetic affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a vanishing human population’
Current Biology
(published online 26 November); (c) M9, 98% in Australoid tribal groups in India: Chenchus and Koyas – see data in Kivisild et al. (2002) op. cit.; (d) M9, 35% in Australians and 94% in New Guinea Highlanders – see data in Kayser, M. et al. (2001) ‘Independent histories of human Y chromosomes from Melanesia and Australia’
American Journal of Human Genetics
68
: 173–90.

45.
Seth represents a quarter of all Indian Y chromosomes and his sons most of the rest
: For Seth see Fig. 1 and Table 1 in Hammer, M.F. et al. (2001) ‘Hierarchical patterns of global human Y-chromosome diversity’
Molecular Biology and Evolution
18
(7): 1189–1203; for representatives of Seth’s sons, Haplotypes 19–24, see Fig. 1, ibid.

46.
Hammer et al. (2001), op. cit., Haplotypes 20–23, see also Fig. 1, ibid. See also
Chapters 3
and
4
. Consensus group F/Seth accounts for G–R in The Y Chromosome Consortium (2002) op. cit.

47.
40 per cent of Y-chromosome types
: Underhill et al. (2001) op. cit.; Hammer et al., (2001) op. cit.
suggests that he was born in India very soon after the initial out-of-Africa dispersal
: One estimate (using the ‘Phylogenetic method’) of the age of Krishna’s immediate ancestor line M89 (Seth) is 88,000 years; the age of a sub-branch (M17) of Polo in India is estimated at 51,200 years using this method. M17 later moved to Central Asia and Europe – see Table 3 in Kivisild, T. (2003) ‘Genetics of the language and farming spread in India’ in P. Bellwood and C. Renfrew (eds)
Examining the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis
(McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge) pp. 215–22.
Several [sons] are local to Pakistan and India
: Haplotypes 90 and 91 in haplogroup defined by M11, in Underhill et al. (2000) op. cit.; Haplotypes 90 and 91 defined by M147 and M70, inibid.
another is found only in Melanesia
: Haplotypes 94–97 in haplogroup defined by M4G/M5T/M9G, in Kayser et al., op. cit. and in Capelli, C. et al. (2001) ‘A predominantly indigenous paternal heritage for the Austronesian-speaking peoples of insular Southeast Asia and Oceania’
American Journal of Human Genetics
68
: 432–43.
another (TAT) is exclusive to Central Asia
: TAT, Haplotype 92, Underhill et al. (2000) op. cit.

48.
M175 or Consensus type O . . . Ho
: M175 branch in Underhill et al. (2000, 2001) op. cit. O/Ho corresponds to Haplogroup O in The Y Chromosome Consortium (2002) op. cit.
Ho splits easily into three branches . . .
;
One remained in southern China, Indo-China and Southeast Asia
: M95;
southern China . . . concentrating on Taiwan
: M119;
Japan, Korea, and Northeast Asia
: M122 – see data in Bing Su et al. (1999, 2000) op. cit.; Karafet et al., op. cit.; Underhill et al. (2000) op. cit.

49.
the other major Asian son of Krishna – Polo
: the M45 branch in Underhill et al. (2000) op. cit.
P/Polo corresponds to Haplogroup P in
: The Y Chromosome Consortium (2002) op. cit.
Kets and Selkups
: Karafet et al., op. cit.

50.
Soffer, O. and Praslov, N.D. (eds) (1993)
From Kostenki to Clovis: Upper Paleolithic – Paleo-Indian Adaptations
(Plenum Press, New York).

Chapter 6

1.
from the Russian Altai . . . through Lake Baikal in southern Siberia to the Aldan River in the east
: Klein, R.G. (1999)
The Human Career: Human Biological and Cultural Origins
(Chicago University Press) – there is an excellent map of Upper Palaeolithic sites on p. 536. For the Ikhine II, Ust’ Mil’ (eastern Siberia) and Malaia Syia (Altai) sites, see Velichko, A.A. and Kurenkova, E.I. (1990) ‘Environmental conditions and human occupation of northern Eurasia during the Late Valdai’; in C. Gamble and O. Soffer (eds)
The World at 18,000 bp
, Vol. 1 (Unwin Hyman, London) pp. 254–65; Goebel, T. et al. (1993) ‘Dating the Middle-to-Upper-Palaeolithic transition at Kara Bom’
Current Anthropology
34
: 452–8. For the Lake Baikal area, see Goebel, T. and Aksenov, M. (1995) ‘Accelerator radiocarbon dating of the initial Upper Palaeolithic in southeast Siberia’
Antiquity
69
: 349–57.
the Arctic Circle was penetrated
: Pavlov, P. et al. (2001) ‘Human presence in the European Arctic nearly 40,000 years ago’,
Nature
413
: 64–7; see also Velichko and Kurenkova op. cit.
on a northern bend of the Yellow River
: at Salawasu/Shuidonggou, Chen, C. and Olsen, J.W. (1990) ‘China at the Last Glacial Maximum’ in C. Gamble and O. Soffer (eds)
The World at 18,000 bp
, Vol. 1 (Unwin Hyman, London) pp. 276–95.

2.
first flowering of the mammoth culture
: Soffer, O. (1993) ‘Upper Paleolithic adaptations in Central and Eastern Europe and man–mammoth interactions’ in O. Soffer and N.D. Praslov (eds)
From Kostenki to Clovis: Upper Paleolithic Adaptations
(Plenum, New York) pp. 31–49.
first possible evidence of Mongoloid features
: Alekseev, V. (1998) ‘The physical specificities of Paleolithic hominids in Siberia’ in A.P. Derev’anko (ed.)
The Paleolithic of Siberia: New Discoveries and Interpretations
(University of Illinois Press, Urbana) pp. 329–35.

3.
See e.g. the description in Oppenheimer, S.J. (1998)
Eden in the East: The Drowned Continent of Southeast Asia
(Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London) pp. 23–7.

4.
Zhang, D.D. and Li, S.H. (2002) ‘Optical dating of Tibetan human hand- and footprints: An implication for the palaeoenvironment of the last glaciation of the Tibetan Plateau’
Geophysical Research Letters
29
(published online DOI: 10.1029/2001GL013749).

5.
The first [refuge] . . . characterized by . . . the Solutrean culture
: Otte, M. (1990) ‘The northwestern European Plain around 18,000 bp’;
Chapter 3
, Gamble, C. and Soffer, O. (eds) (1990)
The World at 18,000 bp
, Vol. 1 (Unwin Hyman, London), pp. 61–5; for more details of Solutrean in SW Europe see also
Chapters 2
, 4–6. pp. 40–169.
other southern refuges . . . described more generally as Epi-Gravettian
: Otte, M. (1990) in Gamble and Soffer op. cit.
second refuge area was Italy
: ibid.; Mussi, M. (1990) ‘Continuity and change in Italy at the Last Glacial Maximum’ in Gamble and Soffer op. cit. pp. 126–43.
third was the Ukraine
: Gamble and Soffer op. cit, and
Chapters 3
, 7, 10–12; Soffer (1993) op. cit.
Two other regions of Central Europe
: Kozlowski, J.K. (1990) ‘Northern Central Europe
c
.18,000 bp’ in Gamble and Soffer op. cit. pp. 204–27.

6.
Soffer (1993) op. cit.

7.
Torroni, A. et al. (1998) ‘mtDNA analysis reveals a major late Paleolithic population expansion from Southwestern to Northeastern Europe’
American Journal of Human Genetics
62
: 1137–52; Torroni, A. et al. (2001) ‘A signal, from human mtDNA, of postglacial recolonization in Europe’
American Journal of Human Genetics
69
: 844–52.

8.
the post-glacial dates of expansion of V
: Torroni et al. (1998) op. cit. The high
frequency of V in the Saami is thought to be a founder effect. See also Richards, M. et al. (2000) ‘Tracing European founder lineages in the Near Eastern mtDNA pool’
American Journal of Human Genetics
67
: 1251–76.
Pre-V found further east (and Trans-Caucasus) . . . and older
: Torroni et al. (2001) op. cit.
Exactly the same [geographic] pattern . . . for Ruslan
: Semino, O. et al. (2000) ‘The genetic legacy of Paleolithic
Homo sapiens sapiens
in extant Europeans: A Y-chromosome perspective’
Science
290
: 1155–9. Note in this context, Ruslan in Semino is ‘Eu 18’ – i.e. M45/M173 without the further M17 (or R without R1a1 in consensus nomenclature)

9.
persisting preglacial mtDNA lines
: Table 5 in Richards et al., op. cit. Note the LGM partition comes between lines 4 (Middle Upper Palaeolithic) and 3 (Late Upper Palaeolithic) of the table.
a feature of the Ukraine refuge
: ibid.

10.
Table 4 in Richards et al. (2000) op. cit.

11.
they still mark a clear genetic boundary
: Stefan, M. et al. (2001) ‘Y-chromosome analysis reveals a sharp genetic boundary in the Carpathian region’
European Journal of Human Genetics
9:
27–33.
M17 is still found at high frequencies
: Later post-glacial expansions into that region could have had the same effect – Semino et al., op. cit. (M17 is Eu 19 in Semino et al.) In the consensus nomenclature, M17 would now be called R1a1 – see The Y Chromosome Consortium (2002) ‘A nomenclature system for the tree of human Y-chromosomal binary haplogroups’
Genome Research
12
: 339–48.

12.
population of southern Central Asia . . . severely reduced
: Davis, R.S. (1990) ‘Central Asian hunter-gatherers at the Last Glacial Maximum’ in Gamble and Soffer op. cit. pp. 267–75; but see also signs of life in Tibet at the LGM in Zhang and Li op. cit.
human activity north even of the permafrost line . . . Afontova Gora . . . scattered archaeological sites
: Velichko and Kurenkova op. cit.

13.
Table 2 in Forster, P. et al. (2003) ‘Asian and Papuan mtDNA evolution’ in P. Bellwood and C. Renfrew (eds)
Examining the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis
(McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge) pp. 89–98.