Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World (65 page)

43.
This paragraph draws on Reynolds, T.E.G. and Kaner, S.C. (1990) ‘Japan and Korea at 18,000 bp’ in C. Gamble and O. Soffer (eds)
The World at 18,000 bp
, Vol. 1 (Unwin Hyman, London) pp. 276–95.

44.
The regions around the Yangtzi Kiang
: at Tonglian – Chen and Olsen op. cit.
the coastal regions of southern China
: The preglacial southern Thai sites of Moh Khiew and
Lang Rongrien, however, are reported to show a high percentage of utilized flake tools – F.D. Bulbeck (2003) ‘Hunter-gatherer occupation of the Malay Peninsula from the Ice Age to the Iron Age’ in J. Mercader (ed.)
The Archaeology of Tropical Rain Forests
(Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick) pp. 119–60, here p. 129.

45.
gap in occupation
(of SE Asia and the Malay Peninsula at LGM): ibid.
the former continent of Sundaland
: Oppenheimer op. cit.
They thus simply followed the sea
: Bulbeck op. cit., but see also Bellwood op. cit. pp. 159–61.

46.
inland caves were reoccupied
: for re-occupations in: Malaysia, lowland Gua Sagu from 14,400 years ago; Lenggong Valley from 13,600 years ago (Gua Runtuh) – Fig. 1 in Majid, Z. (1998) ‘Radiocarbon dates and culture sequence in the Lenggong Valley and beyond’
Malaysia Museums Journal
34
: 241–9. In Indo-China, Son Vi from 9,000 to 12,000 years ago, Hoabinhian from 7,000 to 11,000 years ago, Bacsonian from 7,000 to 10,000 years ago –
Fig.2.3
in Higham, C. (1991)
The Archaeology of Mainland Southeast Asia
(Cambridge University Press).
the old lithic traditions continued
: Majid op. cit.
moved back from lower altitudes
: Bulbeck op. cit.

47.
ancestors of the nomadic Negrito forest hunter-gatherers
: e.g. Bellwood (op. cit. p. 85) argues that the Semang are descended from the earliest inhabitants of Gua Cha Cave, in the centre of the Malay Peninsula. But dentally the Gua Cha inhabitants both pre- and post- Neolithic look more similar to Pacific Rim peoples or Aboriginal Malays than Semang: see table 5 in Bulbeck D. (2000) ‘Dental Morphology at Gua Cha, West Malaysia, and the Implications for Sundadonty’
Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin
19 (Vol 3)
: 17–41.
Zuraina Majid argues further
: Majid op. cit.

48.
colonization of the Philippines
: but excluding the island of Palawan, which was connected to the Sunda Shelf and was colonized much earlier – Thiel, B. (1987) ‘Early settlement of the Philippines, Eastern Indonesia and Australia-New Guinea: A new hypothesis’
Current Anthropology
28
: 236–41. Solheim:
a late Pleistocene intrusion
: Solheim, W.G. II (1994) ‘Southeast Asia and Korea from the beginnings of food production to the first states’ in S.J. De Laet (ed.)
The History of Humanity
(Routledge, London) pp. 468–81, here p. 476.

49.
the shores of the extinct Lake Tingkayu
: Bellwood op. cit. pp. 175–9.
‘unique in the whole of Southeast Asia . . .’
: ibid. p. 179.
the two other preglacial sites
: ibid. p. 160. For each site there is ambiguity over the dates, but they are late Upper Pleistocene.

50.
Ibid. p. 179.

Chapter 7

1.
Thomas Jefferson
: Jefferson, T. (1955) ‘Query XI: A description of the Indians established in that State?’ in
Notes on the State of Virginia
(ed. William Peden) (University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC).
Jesuit scientist and traveller
: José de Acosta (1590)
Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias
(Seville).

2.
Thomas, D.H. (1999) ‘One archaeologist’s perspective on the Monte Verde controversy’ in ‘Monte Verde under fire’
Archaeology
Online Features, 18 October 1999 (
www.archaeology. org
).

3.
the so-called Clovis orthodoxy
: Rose, M. (1999) ‘The importance of Monte Verde’ in ‘Monte Verde under fire’
Archaeology
Online Features, 18 October 1999 (
www.archaeology.org
).
mantle of authority for this gatekeeper role
: ibid.
Hrdlicka was singled out
: Deloria, V. Jr (1995)
Red Earth, White Lies: Native Americans and the Myth of Scientific Fact
(Scribner’s, New York).

4.
For a longer review of the discoveries mentioned in this paragraph, see Rose, op. cit.

5.
American geochronologist C. Vance Haynes
: Haynes, C.V. (1964) ‘Fluted projectile points: Their age and dispersion’
Science
145
: 1404–13; see also Haynes, C.V. (1969) ‘The earliest Americans’
Science
166
: 709–15.
dates of various Clovis-point sites
: these are uncalibrated radiocarbon dates; the calibrated or corrected date bracket would be around 2,000 years older i.e. 13,000 years ago.
age was significant for geologists
: Marshall, E. (2001) ‘Pre-Clovis sites fight for acceptance’
Science
291
: 1730–32; Rutter. N.W. (1980) ‘Late Pleistocene history of the Western Canadian ice-free corridor’
Canadian Journal of Anthropology
1
: 1–8.

6.
eighteen contender sites
: Frison, G.C. and Walker, D.N. (1990) ‘New World palaeoecology at the Last Glacial Maximum and the implications for New World prehistory’ in C. Gamble and O. Soffer (eds)
The World at 18,000 bp
, Vol. 1 (Unwin Hyman, London) pp. 312–30, here pp. 313–15.
Only a few have survived
: the still-embattled sites include Pedra Furada in north-east Brazil, which has a claimed antiquity of 35,000 years, and Taima Taima in Venezuela, at 15,350 years.

7.
Dillehay, T. (1997)
Monte Verde, A Late Pleistocene Settlement in Chile
. Vol. 2,
The Archaeological Context and Interpretation
(Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC).

8.
Marshall op. cit.

9.
The group’s consensus report
: Meltzer, D. et al. (1997) ‘On the Pleistocene antiquity of Monte Verde, southern Chile’
American Antiquity
62
: 659–63.
A further article
: Taylor, R.E. et al. (1999) ‘Radiocarbon analyses of modern organics at Monte Verde, Chile: No evidence for a local reservoir effect’
American Antiquity
64
: 455–60. Note that contamination can occur as a result of coal (fossil carbon) or older peat leaching into younger sources of carbon.

10.
Fiedel, S. (1999) ‘Monte Verde revisited: Artifact provenence at Monte Verde: Confusion and contradictions’ in Special Report ‘Monte Verde revisited’
Scientific American Discovering Archaeology
6
(November/December): 1–12.

11.
Adovasio, J.M. (1999) ‘Paradigm-death and gunfights’ in Special Report ‘Monte Verde revisited’
Scientific American Discovering Archaeology
6
(November/December): 20.

12.
Meltzer, D.J. (1999) ‘On Monte Verde’ in Special Report ‘Monte Verde revisited’
Scientific American Discovering Archaeology
6
(November/December): 16–17.

13.
Collins, M.B. (1999) ‘The site of Monte Verde’ in ‘Monte Verde under fire’
Archaeology
Online Features 18 October (
www.archaeology.org
).

14.
Thomas, D.H. (1999) ‘One archaeologist’s perspective on the Monte Verde controversy’ in ‘Monte Verde under fire’
Archaeology
Online Features 18 October (
www.archaeology.org
).

15.
16,175 years bp corrected ± 975; deepest layer with (disputed) Paleoindian association 21,070 years BP corrected ± 475: Adovasio, J.M. et al. (1990) ‘The Meadowcroft Rockshelter radiocarbon chronology 1975–1990’
American Antiquity
55
: 348–54. Reviewed in Marshall op. cit.

16.
Adovasio is reported
,
‘I will never run another date . . .’
: reported in Marshall op. cit.

17.
McAvoy, J.M. and McAvoy, L.D. (1997) ‘Archaeological investigations of Site 44SX202, Cactus Hill, Sussex County, Virginia’ Virginia Department of Historic Resources, Richmond, Research Report Series No. 8. See also Rose, M. (2000). ‘Cactus Hill update’
Archaeology
(April 10), available at
http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/cactus.html

18.
Reviewed in Marshall op. cit.

19.
Goodyear, A.C. (2001) ‘The stratigraphy story at the Topper site’
Mammoth Trumpet
(Center for the Study of the First Americans, Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University)
16(4)
; also reviewed in Marshall op. cit.

20.
Marshall op. cit.; see also D.K. (1999) ‘Breaking the “Clovis barrier”: Were the first Americans in South Carolina?’
Scientific American Discovering Archaeology
September/October.

21.
Rose, M. (1999) ‘Monte Verde fallout: Beyond Monte Verde’ in ‘Monte Verde under fire’
Archaeology
Online Features 18 October (
www. archaeology.org
).

22.
Rose, M. (1999) ‘Beyond Clovis: How and When the First Americans Arrived’
Archaeology
52
(November/December): (book review of Dixon, E.J. (1999)
Bones, Boats, and Bison: Archeology and First Colonization of Western North America
(University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque), which argues for a west-coast route).

23.
Wallace, A.F.C. (1999)
Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans
(Belknap Press, Cambridge, MA).

24.
Polynesians’ spread through the empty islands
: Oppenheimer, S.J. and Richards, M. (2001) ‘Fast trains, slow boats, and the ancestry of the Polynesian islanders’
Science Progress
84
(3): 157–81.
genetic picture fits the linguistic trail very well
: ibid., but this does not work farther west from Polynesia, where the migration history is more complex – see ibid.

25.
Trask, R.L. (1996)
Historical Linguistics
(Arnold, London) p. 377.

26.
between about 12,000 and 20,000 years ago
: Dixon, R.M.W. (1997)
The Rise and Fall of Languages
(Cambridge University Press) p. 94.
explain the present diversity of American language families
: Nichols uses a particular definition of families defined as ‘stocks’ – see e.g. pp. 24–5 and 233 in Nichols, J. (1992)
Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time
(University of Chicago Press).
English linguist Daniel Nettle
: see the discussion on stocks, phylogenetic diversity, and the Americas in
Chapter 6
of Nettle, D. (1999)
Linguistic Diversity
(Oxford University Press).

27.
167 American language ‘stocks’
: Nichols op. cit. These stocks do not exclude the probability of higher-order nodes or groups based on looser rules. Such higher-order groups can be found in other common secondary classifications; clearly, fewer nodes means fewer stocks, and that can more than halve the estimates.
a simple function of time
: simple = linear, but see also the comment by Nettle op. cit. p. 120.

28.
difficulties with all these analyses
: Nettle op. cit. (in his
Chapter 6
) has criticized Nichols’ methods and suggested an alternative model, again using ‘stocks’.
languages per stock varies
: Nettle op. cit.

29.
The exception is Australia
: It has even been suggested that the present dominant language family in Australia, Pama-Nyungan, was introduced with the dingos – Flood, J. (1995)
Archaeology of the Dreamtime
(Collins, Australia) pp. 206–8; but see also Dixon op. cit. pp. 89–93.
interesting, almost a caricature
: These figures are from my own unpublished analysis.

30.
Greenberg, J.H. et al. (1986) ‘The settlement of the Americas: A comparison of the linguistic, dental, and genetic evidence’
Current Anthropology
27
: 477–97.

31.
Although I accept that Greenberg’s synthesis of a single Amerind group is difficult to sustain, I shall, for convenience in the genetic discussion below, use the term ‘Amerind’ for Native American languages that are neither Na-Dene nor Inuit-Aleut.