Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World (60 page)

32.
greatest genetic diversity of Rohani’s western daughters
: Rohani types in an Iraqi sample: H* (10), H(1–51) (17), HV* (8), HV1 (2), HV1a, HV1b, J* (6), J1 (3), J1b (5), J2, K* (2), K2 (2), Pre-HV (5), R* (3), R1, R2, T* (3), T1 (5), T2, U* (5), U1a, U2 (2), U3 (5), U3a, U4 (2), U5a1a, U6a*, U7 (3), U7a (
n
= 116).
unclassified root genetic types
: in the foregoing list, an asterisk ‘*’ indicates an unclassified paraphyletic haplotype. Data from Richards, M. et al. (2000) ‘Tracing European founder lineages in the Near Eastern mtDNA pool’
American Journal of Human Genetics
67
: 1251–76.

33.
for Rohani’s Indian granddaughter U2i to be of a similar age
: For a comparison of the diversity and age of Indian U types see Kivisild et al. (1999a) op. cit.; Kivisild, T. et al. (1999b) ‘Deep common ancestry of Indian and Western-Eurasian mitochondrial DNA lineages’
Current Biology
9
: 1331–4.
several early non-African Y-chromosome genetic groups
: in particular haplogroups 3 and 9, in: Quintana-Murci, L. et al. (2001) ‘Y-chromosome lineages trace diffusion of people and languages in Southwestern Asia’
American Journal of Human Genetics
68
: 537–42.

34.
Hadramaut . . . ratio . . . 5:1 Nasreen to Manju
: (Hadramaut see above, and note 30 – N diversity also higher than M) – data from Richards et al. (2003) op. cit.
consistent with the view that Nasreen originated farther west than Manju, in the Gulf region
: the node type for N has not been found in India, Europe, or the Levant, although N* types have been found in the Yemen and Tashkent – data from Thomas, M.G. et al. (2002) ‘Founding mothers of Jewish communities: Geographically separated Jewish groups were independently founded by very few female ancestors’
American Journal of Human Genetics
70
: 1411–20.
decreases to 2:1 in the far-western states
: in the north-central/north-eastern regions of the Punjab and Uttar Pradesh the ratio is 1:1, while in Andhra Pradesh on the east coast M outnumbers N by 2:1, data from Kivisild et al. (1999a,b) op. cit.
Manju dominates at 5:1
: data from ibid.

35.
In Tibet, East Asian N subgroups A, B, and F constitute 31.5%, and East Asian M subgroups: C, D, E, and G 36%, Torroni, A. et al. (1994) ‘Mitochondrial DNA analysis in Tibet: Implications for the origins of the Tibetan population and its adaptaton to high altitude’
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
93
: 189–99.

36.
Bulbeck (1999) op. cit.

37.
Much of this paragraph draws on Kivisild et al. (1999a, 2003) op. cit.
Manju achieves her greatest diversity and antiquity in India
: Kivisild et al. (1999a,b, 2003) op. cit.
M2, even dates to 73,000 years ago
: Kivisild et al (2003) op. cit.
M2 is strongly represented in the Chenchu
: ibid.
strong reasons for placing Manju’s birth in India
: It has been argued that M might have been born farther west, in Ethiopia, on the basis of a single sub-branch, ‘M1’, found there with high diversity – Quintana-Murci, L. et al. (1999) ‘Genetic evidence for an early exit of
Homo sapiens sapiens
from Africa through eastern Africa’
Nature Genetics
23
: 437–41. Closer inspection of Ethiopia shows no non-M1 branches or M root (underived), nor her sister N’s roots. Further, when M1 is dated in Ethiopia on the basis of local diversity, it turns out that her age is only about 12,500 years – Kivisild, T. et al. ‘A likely post-LGM impact of Western Asian maternal lineages to Eastern Africans’ abstract, Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on ‘Human Origins and Disease’ October 2000. This means that the M1’s age in Ethiopia is younger than the last glaciation, and she is therefore more likely to be a single re-entrant from South Asia.

38.
a scattering of other Europa clans
: U1, U3 – U6; see: Kivisild et al. (2003) op. cit.
a scattering of her first-generation daughters
: X, I, and, in particular, W – Kivisild et al. (1999a,b, 2003) op. cit.

39.
mother to most Westerners
: including the HV and JT clans, Kivisild, T. et al. (1999a,b) op. cit., Kivisild et al. (2002) ‘The emerging limbs and twigs of the East Asian mtDNA tree’
Molecular Biology and Evolution
19
(10): 1737–51, Kivisild et al. (2003) op. cit.
two Far Eastern daughters
: Haplogroups F and B, see the full gene network in Richards and Macaulay (2000) op. cit.
73,000 years ago
: Kivisild et al. (2003) op. cit.

40.
Kivisild et al. (2003) op. cit.

41.
[Out-of-Africa] Adam’s root line [absent] outside Africa
: would be defined as ‘M168*’ in Underhill et al., op. cit., but
all
members of the M168 clade belong to one of the three branches.
Cain, Abel, and Seth
: respectively M130 (C or RPS4Y), M1 (D’E or YAP), and M89 (or F), ibid. These three lines and their descendants are labelled by at least six different numbering systems by different scientists, so we need to give them some recognizable and consistent names. I have chosen to use the marker system (except when referring to individual haplotypes defined in cited papers in the endnotes) and haplotypes identified in The Y Chromosome Consortium (2002) ‘A nomenclature system for the tree of human Y-chromosomal binary haplogroups’
Genome Research
12
: 339–48. In the main text, as shown, I name the main branches, generally using the consensus lettering as a cue for the first letter – except in the case of Abel and Seth.

42.
One of these three root branches, C (or RPS4Y)
: M130. For the label ‘Consensus type C/Cain’, see the explanation above.
Cain is present at an even rate
: Kivisild et al. (2003) op. cit.
F nearly exclusively non-African with the exception of several root types
: Haplotypes 50, 58, and 71 (Underhill et al., op. cit.); Haplotype 71 is the root M89/Seth type (Consensus type F) and also appears infrequently in Sudan and Ethiopia (Haplotypes 58 and 71 are also found in India). All three haplotypes are found in Morocco (Underhill et al., op. cit.), which has a large European genetic admixture of recent origin that explains this exception. Admixture: See Rando, J.C. et al. (1998) ‘Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Northwest African populations reveals genetic exchanges with European, near-Eastern, and sub-Saharan populations’
Annals of Human Genetics
62
: 531–50. For the label ‘F/Seth’ in place of M89, see the explanation in note 41.
high rates in Australia and New Guinea
: Kayser, M. et al. (2001) ‘Independent histories of human Y chromosomes from Melanesia and Australia’
American Journal of Human Genetics
68
: 173–90.
He accounts for 95–98 per cent of Indian male lines
: Fig. 3 in Kivisild et al. (2003) op. cit.

43.
Two of these are offspring of group K, or Krishna
: 2 Krishna sons Consensus classified respectively as L1 (which is commonest in Tamil Nadu in South India – Wells et al., op. cit. – and is also found in the Greater Andaman Islands –
Chapter 5
note 44) and R2 (which is commonest farther to the east, in West Bengal) see Kivisild et al. (2003) op. cit.
third is a first-degree branch from Seth
: defined by M69 and including mainly Consensus subgroup H1, but also H* and H2, Kivisild et al. (2003) op. cit.
three types feature strongly
: Kivisild et al. (2003) op. cit.; Wells et al., op. cit.
a root Seth type in a quarter of their population
,
restricted to the Indian subcontinent
: F* in Kivisild et al. (2003) op. cit.

44.
another view of out-of-Africa
: Underhill, P.A. et al. (2001a) ‘The phylogeography of Y-chromosome binary haplotypes and the origins of modern human populations’
Annals of Human Genetics
65
: 43–62.
This type is M17
: data from Kivisild et al. (2003) op. cit.; Quintana-Murci, L. et al.; Wells et al., op. cit.

45.
a small, deep, early Asian branch
: ‘Asian YAP’: Consensus type D, Haplotypes 40–43, nodal haplotype 40, Underhill haplogroup IV (Underhill et al. (2000) op. cit) but see also Underhill et al. (2001a) op. cit.
The other, western YAP branch
: Consensus type E, Underhill haplotypes 19–39. See also above, note 31 - (Mehdi, S.Q. et al., op. cit.)
commonest back in Africa
: Underhill haplotypes 19–30; but see also Underhill et al. (2001a) op. cit., where they are also defined by PN2 and PN1 (Haplotypes 20–27).
characteristic of the Middle East
: Underhill haplotypes 31–39; but see also Underhill et al. (2001a) op. cit., where they are further defined by PN2 M35 (Underhill (2001) Haplotypes 29–38); YAP+ types in general are notably lacking in the Khoisan, except for a small number of the two commonest haplotypes with the PN2 marker. This could be consistent with an ancient YAP intrusion to Africa from the Middle East (as per Hammer’s back-to-Africa YAP hypothesis) with subsequent expansion during the Neolithic and only minimal intrusion to hunter-gatherer populations.

46.
e.g. Underhill et al. (2001a) op. cit.

47.
i.e. mtDNA types: M1, and pre-HV; Y chromosome types: YAP+ Underhill haplotypes, especially 19–30.

48.
Trask, R.L. (1996)
Historical Linguistics
(Arnold, London) p. 377.

49.
Kivisild et al. (2000) op. cit.

50.
his complete absence from India
: Kivisild et al. (2003) op. cit.; Wells et al., op. cit.
[Central] Asian YAP at rates of 3–6 per cent
: Wells et al., op. cit.
much lower rates there [India] than in Central Asia
: Kivisild et al. (2003), op. cit.; Wells et al., op. cit.

51.
in Australia he is the dominant line
: Kayser, M. et al. (2001) op. cit.
Eastern Indonesia . . . the least changed or root Cain type
: Underhill, P.A. et al. (2001b) ‘Maori origins, Y chromosome haplotypes and implications for human history in the Pacific’
Human Mutation
17
: 271–80.
From which the unique Australian type is derived
: Haplotypes 2 (M210) in Underhill et al. (2001b) op. cit.
other place . . . root Cain type is found is India . . . Australoid tribal groups
: C* in Fig. 3 in Kivisild et al. (2003) op. cit.
On the neighbouring island of New Guinea
: Capelli, C. et al. (2001) ‘A predominantly indigenous paternal heritage for the Austronesian-speaking peoples of insular Southeast Asia and Oceania’
American Journal of Human Genetics
68
: 432–3; Kayser, M. et al. (2000) ‘Melanesian origin of Polynesian Y chromosomes’
Current Biology
10
: 1237–46; Haplotype 3 (M38) in Underhill et al. (2001b) op. cit.
A breakdown of Cain frequency
: Kayser, M. et al. (2000, 2001) op. cit.; Karafet, T.M. et al. (1999) ‘Ancestral Asian source(s) of New World Y-chromosome founder haplotypes’
American Journal of Human Genetics
64
: 817–31.
Asian types mainly belong to one derived clan
: M217 (Consensus group C3), Underhill et al. (2001b) op. cit.

52.
one of the two remaining founding male types
: Consensus type F/Seth = M89 base in Kayser et al. (2001) op. cit.
Seth in his ancestral or root form in all these areas
: the black shaded areas in Fig. 1 of ibid.
Krishna [at 30%] throughout Southeast Asia and Australia
: the gray shaded areas in Fig. 1 of ibid.
The third root Y line, the Asian YAP
:
Karafet et al. (1999) op. cit.; Bing Su et al. (1999) ‘Y-chromosome evidence for a northward migration of modern humans into Eastern Asia during the last ice age’
American Journal of Human Genetics
65
: 1718–24.

53.
Root and branch for Cain, Seth, and Seth’s genetic sons and grandsons [in Pakistan and/or India]
: Consensus type C/Cain (RPS4Y): Haplotype 46; Consensus type F/Seth (M89): Haplotype 71; F/Seth’s derivatives: M89/M172 Haplotypes 56–58, 60, 61, and 64; M89/M52 Haplotypes 65, 67, and 68; M89/M9 Haplotype 87; M89/M9/M175/M122 Haplotypes 78 and 79; M89/M9/M70 Haplotype 88; M89/M9/M147 Haplotype 89; M89/M9/M11 Haplotypes 90 and 91; M89/M9/M45 Haplotypes 111 and 113; M89/M9/M45/M173 Haplotype 104; M89/M9/M45/M173/M17 Haplotypes 108 and 106 – all in Underhill et al. (2000) op. cit.
several unique [western] YAP types
: Haplotypes 31 and 34, Underhill et al. (2000) op. cit. In addition to these unique YAP haplotypes which may support the Hammer hypothesis of YAP outside Africa, there are representatives from an African clan, Haplotype 12, found in India and Pakistan.

54.
Fig. 2 in Metspalu, E. et al. (1999) ‘The Trans-Caucasus and the expansion of the Caucasoid-specific mitochondrial DNA’ in S.S. Papiha, et al. (eds),
Genomic Diversity: Applications in Human Population Genetics
(Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York) pp. 121–34.