Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World (64 page)

14.
[?] no Mongoloid types . . . in East Asia until around 7,000–10,000 years ago
: Brown, P. (1999) ‘The first modern East Asians? Another look at Upper Cave 101, Liujiang and Minatogawa 1’ in K. Omoto (ed.)
Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the Origins of the Japanese
(International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto) pp. 105–30.
[?]none in Southeast Asia until well after that
: Bellwood, P. (1997)
Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago
revised edn (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu pp. 70-95).

15.
B and F . . . great local antiquity in the south
: See discussion in
Chapter 5
. For pre-glacial age of B in Southern Mongoloids, see: Taiwan (B4a: 30,500 years) in Table 1, Richards, M. et al. (1998) ‘MtDNA suggests Polynesian origins in Eastern Indonesia’
American Journal of Human Genetics
63
: 1234–6. See also discussion and summary re Southern origin of B and R9, and estimated ages of B (and sub-groups) and R9 (F4) in Table 3Yong-Gang Yao et al. (2002) ‘Phylogeographic differentiation of mitochondrial DNA in Han Chinese’
American Journal of Human Genetics
70
: 635–51.

16.
Oppenheimer op. cit.

17.
Ibid.; see also note 22 below and Bellwood op. cit.

18.
Largest population expansion in ISEA . . . arrival of the Metal Age
: The metal age arrived much later in Island Southeast Asia than on the mainland – see Higham, C. (1996)
The
Bronze Age of Southeast Asia
(Cambridge University Press) pp. 301–4.
When rice agriculture greatly expanded
: Paz, V. (2003) ‘Island Southeast Asia: Spread or friction zone?’ in P. Bellwood and C. Renfrew (eds)
Examining the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis
(McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge) pp. 275–86. And Bulbeck F.D. (2002) ‘Recent Insights on the Chronology and Ceramics of the Kalumpang Site Complex, South Sulawesi, Indonesia’
Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin
22 (Vol 6)
: 83–99.

19.
Nasreen types originating in the south: B and F (B* found among Aboriginal Malays), R9 (found in Yunnan (South China) and Xinjiang from a branch ancestral to F), pre-F (common among Aboriginal Malays and ancestral to both R9 and to F), pre-N, N*, and N9, all found in Aboriginal Malays (N9, found throughout Southeast Asia and in South China, is ancestral to Y;) – see
Chapter 5
; R21 (found only among the Semang and Senoi from a Rohani branch, but may be ancestral to pre-F, F4, and F – shares HVS1 site 16304, but not certain key non-coding sites –thus providing a possible deep anchor between the Aboriginal Malays and other aboriginal groups of the Malay Peninsula) – see
Chapter 4
. Manju types originating in the South: M7 – see
Chapter 5
. Y-chromosome types originating in the South: Ho (Consensus type ‘O’) – see
Chapter 5
.

20.
Rayner, D. and Bulbeck, D. (2001) ‘Dental morphology of the “Orang Asli” aborigines of the Malay Peninsula’ in M. Henneberg (ed.)
Causes and Effects of Human Variation
(Australasian Society for Human Biology, University of Adelaide) pp. 19–41.

21.
Oppenheimer op. cit.

22.
Richards, M. et al. (1998) ‘MtDNA suggests Polynesian origins in Eastern Indonesia’
American Journal of Human Genetics
63
: 1234–6; Oppenheimer, S.J. and Richards, M. (2001a) ‘Polynesian origins: Slow boat to Melanesia?’
Nature
410
: 166–7; Oppenheimer, S.J. and Richards, M. (2001b) ‘Fast trains, slow boats, and the ancestry of the Polynesian islanders’
Science Progress
84
(3): 157–81.

23.
Cambridge geneticist, Peter Forster
: Table 2 Forster et al., op. cit.
Similar post-glacial dates for intrusive Y
: M119 in Table 5 in Kayser, M. et al. (2001) ‘Independent histories of human Y chromosomes from Melanesia and Australia’
American Journal of Human Genetics
68
: 173–90; M122 in Table 2 in Kayser, M. et al. (2000) ‘Melanesian origin of Polynesian Y chromosomes’
Current Biology
10
: 1237–46.

24.
Data from Torroni, A. et al. (1994) ‘Mitochondrial DNA analysis in Tibet: Implications for the origins of the Tibetan population and its adaptaton to high altitude’
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
93
: 189–99 (note, the new clade M7 is identified in this older dataset by RFLP site 9820g). The presence of southern paternal line (M95) and the two dominant southern maternal clans B and F in Indo-China and Island Southeast Asia may simply indicate that they had been there all along among Sundadont populations (see
Chapter 5
), but their presence in Melanesia clearly indicates migration. The finding of maternal group C in the south (by e.g. Yong-Gang Yao et al., op. cit.), however, implies migration from the north.

25.
Hill, C. et al. (2003) ‘Mitochondrial DNA variation in the Orang Asli of the Malay Peninsula’ (in preparation).

26.
Consensus line O/Ho = M175: spread of this genetic line in Southeast Asia and intrusion across the Wallace Line reviewed in Oppenheimer and Richards (2001b) op. cit.; data from Kayser et al. (2001) op. cit.; Capelli, C. et al. (2001) ‘A predominantly indigenous paternal heritage for the Austronesian-speaking peoples of insular Southeast Asia and Oceania’
American
Journal of Human Genetics
68:
432–43; Bing Su et al. (1999) ‘Y-chromosome evidence for a northward migration of modern humans into Eastern Asia during the last Ice Age’
American Journal of Human Genetics
65
: 1718–24. See also The Y Chromosome Consortium (2002) op. cit.

27.
Mongoloid remains . . . in Java . . . dated to 7,000 years
: Widianto, H. and Detroit, F. (2001) ‘The prehistoric burial customs in Indonesia during early Holocene: Nature and age’ abstract, Symposium 16.1, 16th Congress of the Union Internationale des Sciences Préhistoriques et Protohistoriques, 2–8 September, Liège.
From the LGM up until about 10,000 years ago
: Oppenheimer op. cit. pp. 78–83.
People of New Guinea . . . morphologically similar to the Negritos
: Bulbeck, D. (1999) ‘Current biological research on Southeast Asia’s Negritos’
SPAFA Journal
9
(2): 14–22; Rayner, D. and Bulbeck, D. (2001) ‘Dental morphology of the “Orang Asli” aborigines of the Malay Peninsula’ in M. Henneberg (ed.)
Causes and Effects of Human Variation
(Australasian Society for Human Biology, University of Adelaide) pp. 19–41; see also
Chapter 5
.

28.
[Niah ‘deep skull’] Carbon-dated to around 42,000 years ago
: Barker, G. et al. (2001) ‘The Niah Cave Project: The second (2001) season of fieldwork’
Sarawak Museum Journal
56
: 37–119, here pp. 56–8.
like the now extinct Tasmanians
: See note 15 in
Chapter 5
.
a partial skull from Tabon Cave
: Bulbeck, F.D. (1981) ‘Continuities in Southeast Asian evolution since the Late Pleistocene’, MA thesis, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, Australian National University, Canberra.

29.
For more than a century arguments . . . Proto-Australian
: Dubois, E. (1922) ‘The proto-Australian fossil man of Wadjak, Java’
Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam
B
23
: 1013–51; Weidenreich, F. (1945) ‘The Keilor skull: A Wadjak type from south-east Australia’
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
3
: 225–36; Wolpoff, M.H. et al. (1984) ‘Modern
Homo sapiens
origins: A general theory of hominid evolution involving the fossil evidence from east Asia’ in F.H. Smith and F. Spencer (eds)
The Origins of Modern Humans
(Alan R. Liss, New York) pp. 411–84.
The skulls have been claimed to be early Mongoloid
: Coon, C.S. (1962)
The Origin of Races
(Alfred A. Knopf, New York); Jacob, J.T. (1967)
Some Problems Pertaining to the Racial History of the Indonesian Region
(Drukkerij Neerlandia, Utrecht) pp. i–xiv, 1–162; Bulbeck, D. (1981) op. cit.
modern (Mongoloid) Javanese
: Storm, P. (1995) ‘The evolutionary significance of the Wajak skulls’
Scripta Geologica
110
: 1–247.
like the Ainu
: Bulbeck, D. (2002) ‘South Sulawesi in the corridor of island populations along East Asia’s Pacific Rim’ in S. Keates and J. Pasveer (eds)
Quaternary Research in Indonesia
,
Modern Quaternary Research in Southeast Asia
, Vol. 17 (Balkema, Rotterdam).
either 10,560 or 6,560 years old
: Storm op. cit.; Shutler, R. et al. (2002) ‘AMS bone apatite C14 dates from Wajak, Indonesia’ in Keates and Pasveer op. cit. Bulbeck also makes a similar Jomon connection for the cranial and dental morphology of pre-ceramic (before they made pots) Toaleans in Sulawesi.

30.
There may not be a single date at all . . . gradual local evolutionary process
: Storm op. cit.
their original name, ‘Proto-Malays’
: Glinka, J. (1981) ‘Racial history of Indonesia’ in I. Schwidetsky (ed.)
Rassengeschichte der Menschheit
, Vol. 8,
Asien I: Japan, Indonesien, Ozeanien
(Oldenbourg, Munich) pp. 79–113.

31.
Forster et al., op. cit.

32.
the ice-age Japanese Minatogawa 1 skull
: Brown op. cit.
the modern Ainu
: Hanihara, T. et al. (1998) ‘Place of the Hokkaido Ainu (Northern Japan) among peoples of the world’
International Journal of Circumpolar Health
57
: 257–75.

33.
In Okinawa, . . . the rare Asian YAP+ marker achieves frequencies of 55%
: Hammer, M.F. and Horai, S. (1995) ‘Y chromosomal DNA variation and the peopling of Japan’
American Journal of Human Genetics
56
: 951–62.
The other beachcombing Y marker [Cain]
: Consensus group C/Cain = RPS4Y, Karafet,T.M. et al. (1999) ‘Ancestral Asian source(s) of New World Y-chromosome founder haplotypes’
American Journal of Human Genetics
64
: 817–31; Bing Su et al., op. cit. C corresponds to the consensus nomenclature for this haplogroup, The Y Chromosome Consortium op. cit.

34.
Brown op. cit. See also Cunningham, D.L. and Wescott, D.J. (2002) ‘Within-group human variation in the Asian Pleistocene: The three Upper Cave crania’
Journal of Human Evolution
42
: 627–38; Wu, X. and Poirier, F.E. (1995)
Human Evolution in China
(Oxford University Press, New York) pp. 158–70.

35.
Karafet et al., op. cit.; Ke, Y. et al. (2001) ‘African origin of modern humans in East Asia: A tale of 12,000 Y chromosomes’
Science
292
: 1151–2.

36.
The ‘backward’ epithet is probably a Eurocentric slur, since the available stone was poor and the most pliant materials used by Southeast Asians for their tools were of perishable wood, fibre, and bamboo. See the discussion in
Chapter 4
and in Shutler, R. Jr (1995) ‘Hominid cultural evolution as seen from the archaeological evidence in Southeast Asia’, Conference papers on Archaeology in Southeast Asia, Publ. Hong Kong University Museum, Hong Kong, 1995.; Pope, G.G. (1989) ‘Bamboo and human evolution’
Natural History
(October) pp. 49–56.

37.
What became known as the Movius Line
: Movius, H.L. (1948) ‘The Lower Palaeolithic cultures of southern and eastern Asia’
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
(new series)
38
: 329–420.
at least a million years ago
: Pope, G.G. and Keates, S.G. (1994) ‘The evolution of human cognition and cultural capacity: A view from the Far East’ in R. Corrucin and R.L. Ciochon (eds)
Integrative Paths to the Past: Paleoanthropological Advances
(Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ) pp. 531–67.
around 70,000 years ago
: Shutler op. cit.; see also Bowdler, S. (1992) ‘The earliest Australian stone tools and implications for Southeast Asia’
Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin
12
: 10–22; Keates, S.G. and Bartstra, G.-J. (2001) ‘Observations on Cabengian and Pacitanian artefacts from Island Southeast Asia’
Quärtar
, Band
51/52
: 9–32; Pope and Keates op. cit.

38.
It has been surmised
: Shutler op. cit.; Pope op. cit.
bamboo
: ibid.

39.
Chen and Olsen op. cit.

40.
Ibid.

41.
Ibid.

42.
Kuzmin, Y.V. et al. (1998) ‘14C chronology of Stone Age cultures in the Russian Far East’
Radiocarbon
40
(1/2): 675–86.