Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension Of American Racism (101 page)
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Authors: James W. Loewen
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32
Kaplan quoted in Anthony Faiola, “Brazil’s Elites Fly Above Their Fears: Rich Try to Wall Off Urban Violence,”
Washington Post
Foreign Service, 6/1/2002; Edward J. Blakely and Mary Gail Snyder,
Fortress America
(Washington, DC: Brookings, 1997), 2–3, 7, 17, 26.
Kaplan quoted in Anthony Faiola, “Brazil’s Elites Fly Above Their Fears: Rich Try to Wall Off Urban Violence,”
Washington Post
Foreign Service, 6/1/2002; Edward J. Blakely and Mary Gail Snyder,
Fortress America
(Washington, DC: Brookings, 1997), 2–3, 7, 17, 26.
33
The entry gates at Country Club Estates in New Albany, Ohio, where houses sold in 2000 for $800,000 to $1,200,000, open automatically when a car drives close to them. No sign tells this, so I suppose some would-be thieves might be deterred. Exit gates in most gated communities open automatically.
The entry gates at Country Club Estates in New Albany, Ohio, where houses sold in 2000 for $800,000 to $1,200,000, open automatically when a car drives close to them. No sign tells this, so I suppose some would-be thieves might be deterred. Exit gates in most gated communities open automatically.
34
Blakely and Snyder,
Fortress America,
69.
Blakely and Snyder,
Fortress America,
69.
35
Ibid., 17, 83; Columbus Academy student, 10/2000.
Ibid., 17, 83; Columbus Academy student, 10/2000.
36
Lacy, “A Part of the Neighborhood”; Annemei Curlin, 8/2002; Blakely and Snyder,
Fortress America,
153–54.
Lacy, “A Part of the Neighborhood”; Annemei Curlin, 8/2002; Blakely and Snyder,
Fortress America,
153–54.
37
Gunnar Myrdal,
An American Dilemma
(New York: Harper & Row, 1944), 9.
Gunnar Myrdal,
An American Dilemma
(New York: Harper & Row, 1944), 9.
38
“Real Estate Operator’s Plan for Exclusion of Minorities Condemned by Civic Leaders,”
Pacific Citizen,
7/5/1947.
“Real Estate Operator’s Plan for Exclusion of Minorities Condemned by Civic Leaders,”
Pacific Citizen,
7/5/1947.
39
In the late 1940s, most Jewish American leaders chose to downplay the Holocaust, “with an eye to an internal assimilationist goal and an external Cold War agenda,” according to Tim Cole, “Representing the Holocaust in America” [reviewing Peter Novick’s
The Holocaust in American Life
],
Public Historian
24, 4 (2002): 128. In the 1960s, according to Novick and Cole, American Jewish leaders made “a U-turn,” and by 1990 the Holocaust had become “the iconic event of the twentieth century, for American Jews in particular and Americans more generally.” This increased emphasis on the Holocaust, exemplified by the very popular Holocaust Museum near the Mall in Washington, D.C., includes modest attention to our reluctance to accept Jewish refugees during and before World War II, but almost none to the rise of anti-Semitism in America during the Nadir.
In the late 1940s, most Jewish American leaders chose to downplay the Holocaust, “with an eye to an internal assimilationist goal and an external Cold War agenda,” according to Tim Cole, “Representing the Holocaust in America” [reviewing Peter Novick’s
The Holocaust in American Life
],
Public Historian
24, 4 (2002): 128. In the 1960s, according to Novick and Cole, American Jewish leaders made “a U-turn,” and by 1990 the Holocaust had become “the iconic event of the twentieth century, for American Jews in particular and Americans more generally.” This increased emphasis on the Holocaust, exemplified by the very popular Holocaust Museum near the Mall in Washington, D.C., includes modest attention to our reluctance to accept Jewish refugees during and before World War II, but almost none to the rise of anti-Semitism in America during the Nadir.
40
Richard Todd, “Darien, Connecticut,”
New England Monthly,
3/1986, 43.
Richard Todd, “Darien, Connecticut,”
New England Monthly,
3/1986, 43.
41
“Attitudes Toward Specific Areas of Racial Integration,”
Connecticut Civil Rights Bulletin
3, 4 (1961) : 2.
“Attitudes Toward Specific Areas of Racial Integration,”
Connecticut Civil Rights Bulletin
3, 4 (1961) : 2.
42
Yes, the event is disputed. I do think James Earl Ray did it, but I don’t believe he acted alone; see James Loewen,
Lies My Teacher Told Me
(New York: New Press, 1995), 224.
Yes, the event is disputed. I do think James Earl Ray did it, but I don’t believe he acted alone; see James Loewen,
Lies My Teacher Told Me
(New York: New Press, 1995), 224.
43
Karl Taeuber, “Research Issues Concerning Trends in Residential Segregation,” University of Wisconsin Center for Demography and Ecology, Madison, Working Paper 83-13, 11/1982, 5.
Karl Taeuber, “Research Issues Concerning Trends in Residential Segregation,” University of Wisconsin Center for Demography and Ecology, Madison, Working Paper 83-13, 11/1982, 5.
44
Howard Schuman, Charlotte Steeh, and Lawrence Bobo,
Racial Attitudes in America
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985), 59–60; Reynolds Farley and William H. Frey, “Changes in the Segregation of Whites from Blacks During the 1980s,”
American Sociological Review
59, 1 (1994), 27; Orlando Patterson,
The Ordeal of Integration
(Washington, DC: Civitas/Counterpoint, 1997), 61.
Howard Schuman, Charlotte Steeh, and Lawrence Bobo,
Racial Attitudes in America
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985), 59–60; Reynolds Farley and William H. Frey, “Changes in the Segregation of Whites from Blacks During the 1980s,”
American Sociological Review
59, 1 (1994), 27; Orlando Patterson,
The Ordeal of Integration
(Washington, DC: Civitas/Counterpoint, 1997), 61.
45
Commenting on the NORC item, Howard Schuman, Charlotte Steeh, and Lawrence Bobo concur. Evidence indicates that some of the 63% agreed more in the abstract than in the concrete. In 1972, NORC also asked respondents to choose “between two possible laws to vote on. One law says that a homeowner can decide for himself who to sell his house to, even if he prefers not to sell to blacks. The second law says that a homeowner cannot refuse to sell to someone because of their race or color. Which law would you vote for?” Only 34% supported the second alternative. See Schuman, Steeh, and Bobo,
Racial Attitudes in America,
97.
Commenting on the NORC item, Howard Schuman, Charlotte Steeh, and Lawrence Bobo concur. Evidence indicates that some of the 63% agreed more in the abstract than in the concrete. In 1972, NORC also asked respondents to choose “between two possible laws to vote on. One law says that a homeowner can decide for himself who to sell his house to, even if he prefers not to sell to blacks. The second law says that a homeowner cannot refuse to sell to someone because of their race or color. Which law would you vote for?” Only 34% supported the second alternative. See Schuman, Steeh, and Bobo,
Racial Attitudes in America,
97.
46
To be sure, much popular culture is youth culture, which makes it partly a matter of the life cycle. One cannot project the life cycle onto society as a whole. When today’s white teenagers become parents and reach thirty or forty, they may choose to live in white suburbia. After all, some white parents who moved to sundown towns in the 1980s had venerated African Americans such as Muhammad Ali or Ray Charles in the 1960s.
To be sure, much popular culture is youth culture, which makes it partly a matter of the life cycle. One cannot project the life cycle onto society as a whole. When today’s white teenagers become parents and reach thirty or forty, they may choose to live in white suburbia. After all, some white parents who moved to sundown towns in the 1980s had venerated African Americans such as Muhammad Ali or Ray Charles in the 1960s.
47
Dorothy K. Newman et al.,
Protest, Politics, and Prosperity
(New York: Pantheon, 1978), 141, 152; Stephen G. Meyer,
As Long as They Don’t Move Next Door
(Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000), 220; Paul Jargowsky, “Concentration of Poverty Declines in the 1990s,”
Poverty & Race
12, 4 (7/2003), 1; David Mendell, “Midwest Housing Divide Is Still Race,”
Chicago Tribune,
6/21/2001, at
mumford1.dyndns.org/cen2000/newspdf/chicagotribune0621.html
, 7/2003.
Dorothy K. Newman et al.,
Protest, Politics, and Prosperity
(New York: Pantheon, 1978), 141, 152; Stephen G. Meyer,
As Long as They Don’t Move Next Door
(Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000), 220; Paul Jargowsky, “Concentration of Poverty Declines in the 1990s,”
Poverty & Race
12, 4 (7/2003), 1; David Mendell, “Midwest Housing Divide Is Still Race,”
Chicago Tribune,
6/21/2001, at
mumford1.dyndns.org/cen2000/newspdf/chicagotribune0621.html
, 7/2003.
48
Associated Press, “Ruling Opens Connecticut Beaches,”
Washington Post,
5/11/2000; Deborah Pollard, professor, University of Michigan–Dearborn, e-mail, 7/2002;
Michigan State Tax Commission v. Grosse Pointe,
Michigan Tax Tribunal #284,585, Opinion, 7/16/2003.
Associated Press, “Ruling Opens Connecticut Beaches,”
Washington Post,
5/11/2000; Deborah Pollard, professor, University of Michigan–Dearborn, e-mail, 7/2002;
Michigan State Tax Commission v. Grosse Pointe,
Michigan Tax Tribunal #284,585, Opinion, 7/16/2003.
49
Ricardo A. Herrera, e-mail, 6/2000.
Ricardo A. Herrera, e-mail, 6/2000.
50
This is reminiscent of the finding that multiethnic towns were less likely than monoethnic towns to exclude blacks between 1890 and 1940.
This is reminiscent of the finding that multiethnic towns were less likely than monoethnic towns to exclude blacks between 1890 and 1940.
51
Mendell, “Midwest Housing Divide Is Still Race”; Christopher Phillips, e-mail, 6/2000.
Mendell, “Midwest Housing Divide Is Still Race”; Christopher Phillips, e-mail, 6/2000.
52
Danielle Gordon, “Residency Rules Ignite Race Debate,”
Chicago Reporter,
12/1998,
chicagoreporter.com/1999/01-99/tear400.gif
, 4/2003.
Danielle Gordon, “Residency Rules Ignite Race Debate,”
Chicago Reporter,
12/1998,
chicagoreporter.com/1999/01-99/tear400.gif
, 4/2003.
53
James Loewen,
Lies Across America
(New York: New Press, 1999), 170–72; Michael Bsharah, letter, 7/20/2000; Dearborn Online,
dearborn-mi.com
, c.10/2002.
James Loewen,
Lies Across America
(New York: New Press, 1999), 170–72; Michael Bsharah, letter, 7/20/2000; Dearborn Online,
dearborn-mi.com
, c.10/2002.
54
Leonard Steinhorn, “Is America Integrated?” History News Network, 12/23/2002,
hnn.us/articles/1174.html
, 5/2004; Nancy A. Denton, “Segregation and Discrimination in Housing” in Rachel Bratt, Chester Hartman, and Michael E. Stone, eds., reader on housing (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, forthcoming), ms. pp. 23–28; Susan Welch et al.,
Race and Place
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 168.
Leonard Steinhorn, “Is America Integrated?” History News Network, 12/23/2002,
hnn.us/articles/1174.html
, 5/2004; Nancy A. Denton, “Segregation and Discrimination in Housing” in Rachel Bratt, Chester Hartman, and Michael E. Stone, eds., reader on housing (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, forthcoming), ms. pp. 23–28; Susan Welch et al.,
Race and Place
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 168.
55
This would not be the first time. Between 1920 and 1950 or so, as we have seen, “white” came to incorporate Jews, Italians, and other groups that had been considered separate races. Irish became “white” earlier; Arabs, Pakistanis, and Asian Indians later. Chinese Americans were admitted to “white” public schools in the Mississippi Delta in the 1930s and ’40s. Today, “white” may be incorporating most Asian, Pacific, Mexican, and affluent Native Americans. Certainly their acceptance in sundown towns implies as much.
This would not be the first time. Between 1920 and 1950 or so, as we have seen, “white” came to incorporate Jews, Italians, and other groups that had been considered separate races. Irish became “white” earlier; Arabs, Pakistanis, and Asian Indians later. Chinese Americans were admitted to “white” public schools in the Mississippi Delta in the 1930s and ’40s. Today, “white” may be incorporating most Asian, Pacific, Mexican, and affluent Native Americans. Certainly their acceptance in sundown towns implies as much.
This process offers payoffs for “real” whites. For one, the oft-repeated claim that whites will be a minority by 2040 or 2050 may not come to pass: “white” may simply morph into a broader category by then. Also, whites have often used their acceptance of “honorary whites” to avoid the charge of racism. Sundown town residents are quick to cite their Mexican and Asian Americans to prove that they are not prejudiced, even though they still do exclude African Americans. Admitting Hispanics and Asian Americans may help make these groups more racist over time, as it did Chinese Americans in Mississippi (see Loewen,
The Mississippi Chinese: Between Black and White
[Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1988], 93, 195–200).
The Mississippi Chinese: Between Black and White
[Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1988], 93, 195–200).
56
Arcola official, 9/2002; Darrin Burnett, “Cross Burning Fans Flames in Beardstown,” Jacksonville (IL)
Journal-Courier,
8/13/1996; Sager quoted in S. Lynne Walker, “Dealing with Change,”
Springfield State Journal-Register,
11/12/2003; comment by real estate broker at Ozarkopathy web site,
ozarkopathy.org
, 8/2003 and e-mail, 9/2003.
Arcola official, 9/2002; Darrin Burnett, “Cross Burning Fans Flames in Beardstown,” Jacksonville (IL)
Journal-Courier,
8/13/1996; Sager quoted in S. Lynne Walker, “Dealing with Change,”
Springfield State Journal-Register,
11/12/2003; comment by real estate broker at Ozarkopathy web site,
ozarkopathy.org
, 8/2003 and e-mail, 9/2003.
57
Lisa Coleman, e-mail, 7/2002.
Lisa Coleman, e-mail, 7/2002.
58
Piggott, AR, resident, e-mail, 8/2002; Benton, IL, teacher, 9/2002.
Piggott, AR, resident, e-mail, 8/2002; Benton, IL, teacher, 9/2002.
59
“Alone in the Crowd,”
New York Times Magazine,
7/16/2000, 56.
“Alone in the Crowd,”
New York Times Magazine,
7/16/2000, 56.
60
Sheridan native at Grant County Museum, 10/2001.
Sheridan native at Grant County Museum, 10/2001.
61
Actually, the Green Bay Packers were the next-to-last team in the National Football League to accept a black player, doing so only in 1950, three years after Jackie Robinson. See Larry Names,
The History of the Green Bay Packers,
vol. IV:
The Shameful Years
(Wautoma: Angel Press, 1995), 44.
Actually, the Green Bay Packers were the next-to-last team in the National Football League to accept a black player, doing so only in 1950, three years after Jackie Robinson. See Larry Names,
The History of the Green Bay Packers,
vol. IV:
The Shameful Years
(Wautoma: Angel Press, 1995), 44.
62
Dan Benson, “Despite Rocky Start, Minorities Call Cedarburg Home,”
Milwaukee Journal Sentinel,
3/14/2001.
Dan Benson, “Despite Rocky Start, Minorities Call Cedarburg Home,”
Milwaukee Journal Sentinel,
3/14/2001.
63
Ragland noted, “The latest census data in 2000 showed 34 blacks residing in Highland Park, but as far as anyone knows, they’re renting.” This is another case where the census counts people who are not known to local residents. Perhaps they are live-in servants, adopted children, inmates of penal, educational, or other institutions, or mistakes by census respondents.
Ragland noted, “The latest census data in 2000 showed 34 blacks residing in Highland Park, but as far as anyone knows, they’re renting.” This is another case where the census counts people who are not known to local residents. Perhaps they are live-in servants, adopted children, inmates of penal, educational, or other institutions, or mistakes by census respondents.
64
Dorothy Brown, “The Encircled Schools: Park Cities and Wilmington,”
Dallas Times Herald,
11/30/1975; James Ragland, “New HP Couple Spurs Media Tizzy,”
Dallas Morning News,
6/9/2003; cf. Mark Miller, “At Last,” MSNBC News, 6/4/2003,
msnbc.com/news/922226
, 6/2003.
Dorothy Brown, “The Encircled Schools: Park Cities and Wilmington,”
Dallas Times Herald,
11/30/1975; James Ragland, “New HP Couple Spurs Media Tizzy,”
Dallas Morning News,
6/9/2003; cf. Mark Miller, “At Last,” MSNBC News, 6/4/2003,
msnbc.com/news/922226
, 6/2003.
65
Betty Toomes, transcript of interview (Yuma, AZ, 1963: Robert B. Powers, interviewer),
sunsite.berkeley.edu
:2020/dynaweb/teiproj/oh/warren/powers/@Generic_BookTextView/ 4030, 1/2003.
Betty Toomes, transcript of interview (Yuma, AZ, 1963: Robert B. Powers, interviewer),
sunsite.berkeley.edu
:2020/dynaweb/teiproj/oh/warren/powers/@Generic_BookTextView/ 4030, 1/2003.
66
White snipers repeatedly shot at the black housing project, forcing residents to douse their lights; blacks in turn fired at the police station and at firemen answering calls. All public officials were white, elected at-large by voters polarized along racial lines; blacks took the city to court, demanding single-member districts so they could win some representation on the city council. See James Loewen, “Report for Land of Lincoln Legal Assistance Foundation in
Kendrick et al. v. Moss et al.,”
typescript, Burlington, VT, 1979.
White snipers repeatedly shot at the black housing project, forcing residents to douse their lights; blacks in turn fired at the police station and at firemen answering calls. All public officials were white, elected at-large by voters polarized along racial lines; blacks took the city to court, demanding single-member districts so they could win some representation on the city council. See James Loewen, “Report for Land of Lincoln Legal Assistance Foundation in
Kendrick et al. v. Moss et al.,”
typescript, Burlington, VT, 1979.
67
Mexican American basketball players played the same unifying role in Beardstown in 2003. About 20 fans of nearby Brown County High School, a sundown county, showed up wearing sombreros and yelling “We want tacos” at the Beardstown team. According to Beardstown senior Tomas Alvarez, “People were mad. They really care about the image of Beardstown. That wasn’t just against an ethnic group. It was against the whole town.” Quoted in Walker, “Dealing with Change.”
Mexican American basketball players played the same unifying role in Beardstown in 2003. About 20 fans of nearby Brown County High School, a sundown county, showed up wearing sombreros and yelling “We want tacos” at the Beardstown team. According to Beardstown senior Tomas Alvarez, “People were mad. They really care about the image of Beardstown. That wasn’t just against an ethnic group. It was against the whole town.” Quoted in Walker, “Dealing with Change.”
68
David Marniss and Neil Henry, “Race ‘War’ in Cairo,”
Washington Post,
3/22/1987.
David Marniss and Neil Henry, “Race ‘War’ in Cairo,”
Washington Post,
3/22/1987.
69
Alvarez quoted in Walker, “Dealing with Change.”
Alvarez quoted in Walker, “Dealing with Change.”
70
Bill Jennings, “Left-hander Finds Many Who Impress,”
Riverside Press Enterprise,
12/11/1992, via LexisNexis; Pete Danko, “Hemet Team Uses Racial Slurs, Rivals Say,”
Riverside County Press Enterprise,
11/19/1989.
Bill Jennings, “Left-hander Finds Many Who Impress,”
Riverside Press Enterprise,
12/11/1992, via LexisNexis; Pete Danko, “Hemet Team Uses Racial Slurs, Rivals Say,”
Riverside County Press Enterprise,
11/19/1989.
71
George Callcott, 5/2004.
George Callcott, 5/2004.
72
San Diego Online,
sandiego-online.com/retro/janretr1.stm
, 3/2003; Mary Ellen Stratthaus, “Flaw in the Jewel: Housing Discrimination Against Jews in La Jolla, California,”
American Jewish History
84, 3 (1996): 189, 193–95, 198, 201–2, 210, 215–16.
San Diego Online,
sandiego-online.com/retro/janretr1.stm
, 3/2003; Mary Ellen Stratthaus, “Flaw in the Jewel: Housing Discrimination Against Jews in La Jolla, California,”
American Jewish History
84, 3 (1996): 189, 193–95, 198, 201–2, 210, 215–16.
73
John Palen,
The Suburbs
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995), xiv, 3.
John Palen,
The Suburbs
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995), xiv, 3.
74
Actually, while Mountain Home’s population ballooned from 3,936 in 1970 to 9,027 by 1990, its black population decreased from 1 to 0. Not until 2000, when three African American families finally ventured in, did Mountain Home cease being a sundown town. Long before that, the sense that integration was unavoidable played a major role in desegregating sundown suburbs across most of the South.
Actually, while Mountain Home’s population ballooned from 3,936 in 1970 to 9,027 by 1990, its black population decreased from 1 to 0. Not until 2000, when three African American families finally ventured in, did Mountain Home cease being a sundown town. Long before that, the sense that integration was unavoidable played a major role in desegregating sundown suburbs across most of the South.
75
For a brief period after World War II, three other suburbs in Mississippi tried to emulate northern sundown suburbs and became almost all-white: Southaven, a suburb of Memphis, East Tupelo, a former suburb of Tupelo, and D’Iberville, on the Gulf Coast. Each went through a brief period—no more than twenty years—as a sundown suburb, but none is sundown any longer.
For a brief period after World War II, three other suburbs in Mississippi tried to emulate northern sundown suburbs and became almost all-white: Southaven, a suburb of Memphis, East Tupelo, a former suburb of Tupelo, and D’Iberville, on the Gulf Coast. Each went through a brief period—no more than twenty years—as a sundown suburb, but none is sundown any longer.
76
Gordon D. Morgan, “Black Hillbillies of the Arkansas Ozarks,” Department of Sociology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, 1973, 155–59.
Gordon D. Morgan, “Black Hillbillies of the Arkansas Ozarks,” Department of Sociology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, 1973, 155–59.
77
Izard County had actually grown whiter. In 1960, it had 54 African Americans, about evenly divided between males and females, while in 2000 it had 191—but the increase was illusory. The 191 African Americans included just 12 females and 179 males; a state prison accounts for almost all of them.
Izard County had actually grown whiter. In 1960, it had 54 African Americans, about evenly divided between males and females, while in 2000 it had 191—but the increase was illusory. The 191 African Americans included just 12 females and 179 males; a state prison accounts for almost all of them.
78
White male resident, Sheridan, about 65 years of age, Grant County Museum, 10/ 2001.
White male resident, Sheridan, about 65 years of age, Grant County Museum, 10/ 2001.
79
William Booth, “Booming California Suburbs Highly Diverse, Data Show,”
Washington Post,
8/18/2002; cf. Juan O. Sandoval, Hans P. Johnson, and Sonya M. Tafoya, “Who’s Your Neighbor,”
California Counts
4, 1 (2002): 5.
William Booth, “Booming California Suburbs Highly Diverse, Data Show,”
Washington Post,
8/18/2002; cf. Juan O. Sandoval, Hans P. Johnson, and Sonya M. Tafoya, “Who’s Your Neighbor,”
California Counts
4, 1 (2002): 5.
80
Camille Zubrinsky Charles, talk, OPEN meeting, Philadelphia, 12/2000.
Camille Zubrinsky Charles, talk, OPEN meeting, Philadelphia, 12/2000.
81
Remember, the higher the D, the greater the segregation, with 100 being complete apartheid.
Remember, the higher the D, the greater the segregation, with 100 being complete apartheid.
82
William A. V. Clark, “Residential Segregation Trends,” in Abigail Thernstrom and Stephan Thernstrom, eds.,
Beyond the Color Line
(Stanford: Hoover Institution, 2002), 86,
hoover.stanford.edu/publications/books/fulltext/colorline/83.pdf
, 2/2003.
William A. V. Clark, “Residential Segregation Trends,” in Abigail Thernstrom and Stephan Thernstrom, eds.,
Beyond the Color Line
(Stanford: Hoover Institution, 2002), 86,
hoover.stanford.edu/publications/books/fulltext/colorline/83.pdf
, 2/2003.
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