The Northern Crusades (47 page)

On German eastward emigration, the best survey is C. Higounet,
Les Allemands en Europe centrale et orientale au Moyen Age
(Paris, 1990); the German version has no index. The debate on the Order’s relations with the emperor is summarized in English by Marian Dygo in ‘The German Empire and the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order in the Light of the Golden Bull of Rimini’,
Acta Poloniae Historica
,
lx
(1990).

For a general theory of west-European expansion in the Middle Ages, with particular reference to eastern Europe, there is Robert Bartlett,
The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization, and Cultural Change
(Princeton, 1993), chapters 2–3, 5–9.

J. A. Brundage,
The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia
(Madison, Wis., 1961), provides the indispensable source for the subjugation of Estonia and Livonia and Jerry Smith and William Urban have translated
The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle
(Bloomington, 1977) with brief but excellent notes.

Livonia:
A rapid sketch is contained in E. Johnson, ‘The German Crusade in the Baltic’,
A History of the Crusades
, ed. K. M. Setton,
iii
(Madison, Wis., 1975), and a detailed account of the Livonian wars in W. Urban,
The Baltic Crusade
(De Kalb, Ill, 1975). See also W. Urban, ‘The Organization of the Defense of the Livonian Frontier in the Thirteenth Century’,
Speculum
(1973), and his much expanded second edition of
The Baltic Crusade
(Chicago, 1994).

Prussia:
On Danish involvement with the mission, Stella Szacherska, ‘Valdemar II’s expedition to Pruthenia’,
Mediaeval Scandinavia
,
xii
(1988).

For the conquest of Prussia, see K. Gorski, ‘The Teutonic Order in Prussia’,
Medievalia et humanistica
,
xvii
(1966), and ‘L’Ordre theutonique: un nouveau point de vue’,
Revue historique
,
ccxxx
(1965); also M. Biskup, ‘Teutonic Order State Organization’,
Acta Poloniae historica
,
iii
(1960). There is no translation of the main source, Peter of Dusburg’s Chronicle, which is in
Scriptores rerum Prussicarum
, ed. T. Hirsch, M. Toeppen and E. Strehlke (Leipzig, 1861–74), 1, and was reprinted at Darmstadt in 1984 with introduction, notes and German translation by C. Scholz and D. Wojtecki.

Estonia:
P. Rebane, ‘Denmark, the Papacy and the Christianization of Estonia’ is in
Gli inizi del Cristianesimo in Livonia-Lettonia
, ed. A. Weiss,
et al.
for Pontificio comitato di Scienze Storiche, Atti e Documenti (Vatican, 1989–90).

Finland:
For the Swedish background see Sawyer and Sawyer,
Medieval Scandinavia
(see above, chapter 1) and John Lind, ‘Early Russian-Swedish Rivalry’,
Scandinavian Journal of History
,
xvi
/4 (1991); for the Finns,
A History of Finland
, ed. E. Jutikkala (London, 1962), chapters 1–3 (by K. Pirinen). On St Eric, there is a fine analysis of the evidence by J. E. Cross, ‘St Eric of Sweden’,
Saga-Book
,
xv
pt 4 (1961), with a translation of the ‘standard legend’. On the early missions, see C. L. A. Oppermann,
The English Missionaries in Sweden and Finland
(London, 1937), and J. Gallén,
La Province de Dacia del’Ordre des frègres prSêcheurs
(Helsinki, 1946).

Standard works on the theory of papal monarchy (by Ullmann, J. A. Watt and B. Tierney) deserve sceptical assessment in so far as they stress the consistency and coherence of papal political initiatives. There is little in English on the relations between Rome and this region, but chapters 1–3 of J. Muldoon,
Popes, Lawyers and Infidels: the Church and the Non-Christian World 1250–1550
(Liverpool, 1979) are useful for canonist doctrine on missions and the heathen. There is a brief but useful note on ‘Crusade and Mission’ in Colin Morris,
The Papal Monarchy
(Oxford, 1989), 479–89. There are no English works on what the legates did in North-East Europe, or on the papal attitude towards the northern Russians. On these subjects, and the anti-Russian crusade, see W. Urban,
The Baltic Crusade
(De Kalb, Ill., 1975), 127–71, and M. Purcell,
Papal Crusading Policy
(Studies in the History of Christian Thought, XI, Leiden, 1975).
Preaching the Crusade
by Christoph Maier (Cambridge, 1994) covers the role of friars.

The broad history of this period is efficiently summarized in Jean W. Sedlar,
East Central Europe in the Middle Ages 1000–1500
(Washington, DC, 1994). William Urban’s
The Samogitian Crusade
(Chicago, 1989) mostly concerns wars against Lithuania; see Giedroyc in
Journal of Baltic Studies
,
xxii
/4 (1991).

The rebirth of Lithuanian historical writing includes the outstanding contributions (in English) of M. Giedroyc (esp. in
Oxford Slavonic Papers
,
xviii
(1985) and
xix
(1987), S. C. Rowell (whose L
ithuania Ascending
(Cambridge, 1994) gives a detailed account of Lithuanian princely policies from the 1290s to the 1350s) and R. J. Mazeika, whose ‘Of Cabbages and Knights’,
Journal of Medieval History
,
xx
/
i
(1994) concerns trade between the combatants. Rowell and Mazeika collaborate in ‘Zelatores Maximi’ (
Arcbivium Historiae Pontificiae,
xxxi
(1993)) on the problems of co-ordinating Baltic missions in the period 1305–40. On Jogaila’s conversion, nothing surpasses Giedroyc’s ‘Lithuanian Options prior to Kreva’ in
La Cristianizzazione della Lituania
(Pontificio Comitato, Vatican, 1990): a collection with English contributions by Gimbutas, Urban, and Mazeika.

William Urban shed new light on Bacon’s views of Holy War in ‘Roger Bacon and the Teutonic Knights’,
Journal of Baltic Studies
,
xix
/4, 363–70, and see Muldoon (above, chapter 5). On the crusaders from the west, and their illusions, consult L. Toulmin-Smith,
Expeditions to Prussia and the Holy Land made by Henry Earl of Derby
, Camden Society, 2nd Ser.,
lii
(London, 1894); and F. du Boulay, ‘Henry of Derby’s Expeditions to Prussia 1390–1 and 1392’,
The Reign of Richard II
, ed. F. du Boulay and C. Barren (London, 1971), 153–72 and Maurice Keen, ‘Chaucer’s Knight, the English Aristocracy, and the Crusade’ in
English Court Culture
, ed. V. Scattergood (London, 1983). On notions of Lithuanian heathenism see Helmut Biorkhan, ‘Les Croisades contre les paiens de Lituanie et de Prusse’ in
La Croisade: réalitét fictions
, ed. D. Buschinger (Göppingen, 1989).

On peripheral subjects, see R. Cazelles,
Jean l’Aveugle
(Paris, 1947); P. W. Knoll, ‘Wladyslaw Lokietek and the Restoration of the
Regnum Poloniae’, Medievalia et humanistica
,
xvii
(1966); and his
The Rise of the Polish Monarchy: Piast Poland in East Central Europe 1320–70
(Chicago, 1972).

The essential source for Russo-Lithuanian relations in the thirteenth century has been edited and translated, with notes, by G. A. Perfecky as
The Hypatian Codex Part Two: The Galician-Volynian Chronicle
, Harvard Series in Ukrainian Studies,
xvi
/
i
(Munich, 1973).

The various Novgorod chronicles (down to 1446) were merged by R. Michell and N. Forbes as
The Chronicle of Novgorod
, Camden Society, 3rd ser.,
xxv
(London, 1914), and for the Russian side there is J. Fennell, ‘The Campaign of King Magnus Eriksson against Novgorod in 1348: An Examination of the Sources’,
Jabrbücber für Gescbichte Osteuropas
,
i
(1966), rectified with needless acerbity by John Lind in ‘The Russian Sources of King Magnus Eriksson’s Campaign’,
Mediaeval Scandinavia
,
xii
(1988). Fennell’s
The Emergence of Moscow
(London, 1968) is still the best account of fourteenth-century politics, to be prefaced by reading his
The Crisis of Medieval Russia
(London/New York, 1983) and C. J. Halperin,
Russia and the Golden Horde
(London, 1987).

For Magnus’s reign in Sweden, see F. D. Scott,
Sweden: The Nation’s History
(Minneapolis, 1977), 69–79, and, on St Bridget, C. Bergendorff, ‘A Critic of the Fourteenth Century: St Birgitta of Sweden’ in
Medieval and Historiographical Essays in Honour of James Westfall Thompson
, ed.J. Cate and E. Anderson (Chicago, 1938), 3–18. For Norway’s part in the war, see K. Selnes, ‘Un conflit norvégo-russe au Moyen Age’,
Scando-Slavica
,
viii
(1962).

There are relevant articles in English by Häme (on the Far North in sagas), Julku (on the treaties of 1323 and 1326) and Vahtola (on Karelian mobility) in the first volume of
Nordkalotten i en skiftande värld
, ed. K. Julku Rovaniemi, 1987/88.

Thomas Noonan, ‘Medieval Russia, the Mongols, and the West. Novgorod’s relations with the Baltic 1100–1350’,
Medieval Studies
,
xxxvii
(1975) remains indispensable. For the involvement of Livonia in these wars, consult William Urban,
The Livonian Crusade
(Washington, DC, 1981), which concerns the period 1300–1583.

On the Order and the Hansa, consult P. Dollinger,
The German Hansa
, trs. D. S. Ault and S. H. Steinberg (London, 1970), and M. Postan,
The Cambridge Economic History of Europe
,
ii
(Cambridge, 1952), 223–32, and E. Lönnroth, ibid.,
iii
(Cambridge, 1963), 361–96. See also A. von Brandt, ‘Recent Trends in Research in Hanseatic History’,
History
,
xli
(1957).

On Livonia, see J. Leighley,
The Towns of Mediaeval Livonia
, University of California Publications in Geography,
vi
, no. 7 (1939), and Z. Ligers,
Histoire des Villes de Lettonie et d’Esthonie
(Paris, 1946). A Schwabe,
Agrarian History of Latvia
(Riga, n.d.) is useful but rare.

On Danish Estonia see T. Riis,
Les Institutions politiques centrales du Danemark 1100–1332
(Odense, 1977), 323–36, and P. Rebane, ‘The Danish Bishops of Tallinn 1260–1346’,
Journal of Baltic Studies
,
v
(1974) and Niels Skyum-Nielsen, ‘Estonia under Danish Rule’ in
Danish Medieval History: New Currents
, ed. Skyum-Nielsen and N. Lund (Copenhagen, 1981). On the merging of beliefs among native Estonians: Ivar Paulson,
The Old Estonian Folk Religion
(Bloomington, 1971), and for a nationalist survey of the period: E. Uustalu,
The History of the Estonian People
(London, 1952), 49–66: ‘Estonia under the rule of the Teutonic Order’.

The vast German literature on Prussia under the Order is almost entirely untranslated; pp.
52–89
of F. L. Carsten,
The Origins of Prussia
(Oxford, 1954) – a good outline of the settlement. An informative illustrated survey of the whole range of the Teutonic Knights’ achievements is F. Benninghoven’s catalogue for the 1990 Berlin exhibition:
Unter Kreuz und Adler
(Berlin, 1990).

There is a collection of good photographs of the Order’s castles in Prussia and Livonia in A. Winnig,
Der Deutscbe Ritterorden and seine Burgen, Die Blauen Bücber
(Königstein im Taunus, n.d.); the text is wholly unexplanatory. For sculpture, see K. H. Clasen,
Die Mittelalterliche Bildbauerkunst im Deutscbordensland Preussen
, 2 vols (Berlin, 1939); and C. Wünsch,
Ostpreussen, Die Kunst im Deutscben Osten
(Berlin, 1960), includes many illustrations. On the Order’s literature, the standard works (W. Zeisemer,
Die Litteratur des deutscben Order in Preussen
(Breslau, 1928); C. H. G. Helm and W. Zeisemer,
Die Litteratur des deutscben Ritterorden
(Giessen, 1951) are naturally in German, but there is M. E. Goenner,
Mary-Verse of the Teutonic Knights
(Washington, DC, 1945), and Marian Dygo, ‘The political role of the cult of the Virgin Mary in Teutonic Prussia’,
Journal of Medieval History,
xv
(1989). On the ideology of the Order as a whole, see the excellent Mary Fisher,
Die Himels Rote: the Idea of Christian Chivalry in the Chronicles of the Teutonic Order
(Göppingen, 1991).