The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (113 page)

63.
See again Carter,
Dutch Republic in the Seven Years War
, passim; Walker,
Spanish Politics and Imperial Trade
.

64.
On the Seven Years War generally, see
NCMH
, vol. 7, ch. 20; McKay and Scott,
Rise of the Great Powers
, pp. 192–200. British policy is covered in Niedhart,
Handel und Krieg in der britischen Weltpolitik
, pp. 121–38; Jones,
Britain and the World
, pp. 207ff; B. Tunstall,
William Pitt, Earl of Chatham
(London, 1938); J. S. Corbett,
England in the Seven Years War: A Study in Combined Strategy, 2
vols. (London, 1907); R. Savory,
His Britannic Majesty’s Army in Germany During the Seven Years War
(Oxford, 1966). The lackluster French effort is nicely described in Kennett,
French Armies in the Seven Years War;
the improved Austrian performance in Duffy,
Army of Maria Theresa
. Russia’s early role is described in H. H. Kaplan,
Russia and the Outbreak of the Seven Years War
(Berkeley, Calif., 1968); and Duffy,
Russia’s Military Way to the West
, pp. 92ff. Succinct accounts of Prussia’s performance are in Duffy,
Army of Frederick the Great;
and J. Kunisch,
Das Mirakel des Hauses Brandenburg
(Munich, 1978), with useful comparisons.

65.
Cited in Kennedy,
Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery
, p. 106; and see also Pares, “American versus Continental Warfare,” passim. On Pitt’s difficulties in the ministry of 1757–1762, see R. Middleton,
The Bells of Victory
(Cambridge, 1985).

66.
Quoted in H. Rosinski, “The Role of Sea Power in the Global Warfare of the Future,”
Brassey’s Naval Annual
(1947), p. 103. For French financial weaknesses during the Seven Years War, see again Kennett,
French Armies in the Seven Years War
, and Bosher, “Financing the French Navy in the Seven Years War,” passim.

67.
For the above, see McKay and Scott,
Rise of the Great Powers
, pp. 253–58;
NCMH
, vol. 8, pp. 254ff; J. F. Ramsay,
Anglo-French Relations 1763–70: A Study of Choiseul’s Foreign Policy
(Berkeley, Calif., 1939); H. M. Scott, “The Importance of Bourbon Naval Reconstruction to the Strategy of Choiseul after the Seven Years War,”
International History Review
, vol. 1 (1979), pp. 17–35; R. Abarca, “Classical Diplomacy and Bourbon ‘Revanche’ Strategy, 1763–1770,”
Review of Politics
, vol. 32 (1970), pp. 313–37; M. Roberts,
Splendid Isolation 1763–1780
(Stenton Lecture, Reading, 1970).

68.
For what follows, see I. R. Christie,
Wars and Revolutions: Britain 1760–1815
(London, 1982), chs. 4–6; P. Mackesy,
The War for America 1775–1783
(London, 1964); B. Donoughue,
British Politics and the American Revolution
(London, 1964); G. S. Brown,
The American Secretary: The Colonial Policy of Lord George Germain 1775–1778
(Ann Arbor, Mich., 1963);
NCMH
, vol. 8, chs. 15–19; and the useful collection of essays in D. Higginbotham (ed.),
Reconsiderations on the Revolutionary War
(Westport, Conn., 1978). There is a good survey of the newer literature in H. M. Scott, “British Foreign Policy in the Age of the American Revolution,”
International History Review
, vol. 6 (1984), pp. 113–25.

69.
D. Syrett,
Shipping and the American War 1775–83
(London, 1970), p. 243 and passim. See also N. Baker,
Government and Contractors: The British Treasury and War Supplies 1775–1783
(London, 1971); R. A. Bowler,
Logistics and the Failure of the British Army in America 1775–1783
(Princeton, N.J., 1975); E. E. Curtis,
The Organization of the British Army in the American Revolution
(Menston, Yorkshire, 1972 reprint). For the American side, see the excellent survey D. Higginbotham,
The War of American Independence
(Bloomington, Ind., 1977 ed.).

70.
Barnett,
Britain and Her Army
, p. 225.

71.
Figures are from Kennedy,
Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery
, p. 111. See also the excellent work by Dull,
French Navy and American Independence;
and A. T. Patterson,
The Other Armada: The Franco-Spanish Attempt to Invade Britain in 1779
(Manchester, 1960). For the diplomatic aspects, see I. de Madariaga,
Britain, Russia and the Armed Neutrality of 1780
(London, 1962); S. F. Bemis,
The Diplomacy of the American Revolution
(New York, 1935); and Higginbotham,
The War of American Independence
, ch. 10; most recently, Dull,
A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution
(New Haven, Conn., 1985).

72.
For what follows, see McKay and Scott,
Rise of the Great Powers
, ch. 8;
NCMH
, vol. 8, chs. 9 and 12; I. de Madariaga,
Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great
(London, 1981).

73.
Ehrman,
Younger Pitt
, vol. 1, pp. 516–71, and vol. 2, pp. 42ff; Jones,
Britain and the World
, pp. 252ff; Binney,
British Public Finance and Administration;
and, for comparisons with France’s economy in the 1780s, see again Crouzet, “Angleterre et France”; Mathias and O’Brien, “Taxation in Britain and France, 1715–1810”; and Nef,
War and Human Progress
, pp. 282ff.

74.
For the military reforms, see
NCMH
, vol. 8, pp. 190ff, and vol. 9, ch. 3; McNeill,
Pursuit of Power
, pp. 158ff; Strachan,
European Armies and the Conduct of War
, pp. 25ff; R. S. Quimby,
The Background of Napoleonic Warfare
(New York, 1957); D. Bien, “The Army in the French Enlightenment: Reform, Reaction and Revolution,”
Past and Present
, no. 85 (1979), pp. 68–98; and G. Rothenberg,
The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon
(Bloomington, Ind., 1978). For the early stages of the campaigning, see M. Glover,
The Napoleonic Wars: An Illustrated History 1792–1815
(New York, 1979); S. T. Ross,
Quest for Victory: French Military Strategy 1792–1799
(London/New York, 1973), chs. 1–4; G. Rothenberg,
Napoleon’s Great Adversaries: The Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army 1792–1814
(London, 1982), ch. 2.

75.
British policy and strategy is covered in Jones,
Britain and the World
, pp. 259ff; Ehrman,
Younger Pitt
, vol. 2, pts. 4–5; Christie,
Wars and Revolutions
, pp. 215–326; J. M. Sherwig,
Guineas and Gunpowder: British Foreign Aid in the Wars with France 1793–1815
(Cambridge, Mass., 1969), chs. 1–4; M. Duffy, “British Policy in the War Against Revolutionary France,” in C. Jones (ed.),
Britain and Revolutionary France: Conflict, Subversion and Propaganda
(Exeter Studies in History, no. 5, Exeter, 1983); D. Geggus, “The Cost of Pitt’s Caribbean Campaigns, 1793–1798,”
Historical Journal
, vol. 26, no. 2 (1983), pp. 691–706.

76.
Quoted in Glover,
Napoleonic Wars
, p. 50. For Napoleon as strategist and commander, see D. G. Chandler,
The Campaigns of Napoleon
(New York, 1966); C. Barnett,
Napoleon
(London, 1978); Rothenberg,
Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon;
and the running commentary in G. Lefevre,
Napoleon, 2
vols. (London/New York, 1969).

77.
See A. B. Rodger,
The War of the Second Coalition, 1798–1801
(Oxford, 1964); P. Mackesy,
Statesmen at War: The Strategy of Overthrow, 1798–1799
(London, 1974); the controversial comments in E. Ingram,
Commitment to Empire:
Prophecies of the Great Game in Asia, 1797–1800
(Oxford, 1981); Sherwig,
Guineas and Gunpowder
, chs. 6–7; Rothenberg,
Napoleon’s Great Adversaries
, ch. 3. For the French side, see Ross,
Quest for Victory
, chs. 5–12; and idem,
European Diplomatic History 1789–1815: France Against Europe
(Malabar, Fla., 1981 reprint), ch. 6. The Russian intervention is covered in A. A. Lobanov-Rostovsky,
Russia and Europe 1789–1825
(Durham, N.C., 1947), pp. 43–64; and Duffy,
Russia’s Military Way to the West
, pp. 208ff.

78.
Jones,
Britain and the World
, pp. 272–80; C. Emsley,
British Society and the French Wars 1793–1815
(London, 1979), chs. 4–5; Lefevre,
Napoleon
, vol. 1, chs. 5 and 7; Glover,
Napoleonic Wars
, pp. 83–84. See also the comments in E. L. Presseisen,
Amiens and Munich: Comparisons in Appeasement
(The Hague, 1978).

79.
Lefevre,
Napoleon
, vol. 1, chs. 7 and 9; Ross,
European Diplomatic History
, ch. 8; Chandler,
Campaigns of Napoleon
, pt. 7; Glover,
Napoleonic Wars
, ch. 3; Rothenberg,
Napoleon’s Great Adversaries
, ch. 5; Sherwig,
Guineas and Gunpowder
, chs. 7–8; Jones,
Britain and the World
, pp. 281–87; Marcus,
Naval History of England
, vol. 2, pp. 221–302.

80.
For what follows, see Jones,
Britain and the World
, pp. 289ff; F. Crouzet,
L’Economie britannique et le Blocus Continental 1806–1813, 2
vols. (Paris, 1958); idem, “Wars, Blockade, and Economic Change in Europe 1792–1815,”
Journal of Economic History
, vol. 24 (1964), pp. 567–88; Kennedy,
Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery
, pp. 143–45;
NCMH
, vol. 9, pp. 326ff; E. F. Heckscher,
The Continental System
(Oxford, 1922). For the debate over the impact of the 1793–1815 struggle upon the British economy, see, in addition, Emsley,
British Society and the French Wars
, chs. 7–8; J. E. Cookson, “Political Arithmetic and War 1793–1815,”
War and Society
, vol. 1, no. 2 (1983), pp. 37–60; G. Hueckel, “War and the British Economy, 1793–1815: A General Equilibrium Analysis,”
Explorations in Economic History
, vol. 10, no. 4 (Summer, 1973), pp. 365–96; P. Deane, “War and Industrialisation,” in Winter (ed.),
War and Economic Development
, pp. 91–102; J. L. Anderson, “Aspects of the Effects on the British Economy of the War Against France, 1793–1815,”
Australian Economic History Review
, vol. 12 (1972), pp. 1–20.

81.
see Table 2, above. For British war finances, see N. J. Silberling, “Financial and Monetary Policy of Great Britain During the Napoleonic Wars,”
Quarterly Journal of Economics
, vol. 38 (1923–24), pp. 214–33; E. B. Schumpeter, “English Prices and Public Finance, 1660–1822,”
Review of Economic Statistics
, vol. 20 (1938), pp. 21–37; A. Hope-Jones,
Income Tax in the Napoleonic Wars
(Cambridge, 1939); P. O’Brien,
British Financial and Fiscal Policy in the Wars Against France, 1793–1815
(Oxford, 1984).

82.
L. Bergeron,
France Under Napoleon
(Princeton, N.J., 1981), pp. 37ff, 159ff; G. Brunn,
Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1815
(New York, 1938), chs. 4–5; S. B. Clough,
France: A History of National Economics 1789–1939
(New York, 1939), chs. 2–3; Lefevre,
Napoleon
, vol. 2, chs. 1–4; C. Trebilcock,
The Industrialization of the Continental Powers 1780–1914
(London, 1981), pp. 125ff.

83.
Bergeron,
France Under Napoleon
, pp. 167ff, 184ff; Crouzet, “Wars, Blockade, and Economic Change,” passim.

84.
Bergeron,
France Under Napoleon
, pp. 37ff; Lefevre,
Napoleon
, vol. 2, pp. 171ff; Clough,
France
, chs. 2–3.

85.
For what follows, see Bergeron,
France Under Napoleon
, pp. 40–41; Lefevre,
Napoleon
, vol. 2, p. 291; McNeill,
Pursuit of Power
, pp. 198ff; Brunn,
Europe and the French Imperium
, pp. 73–75, 1l0ff; E. J. Hobsbawm,
The Age of Revolution 1789–1848
(London, 1962), p. 97; G. Rudé,
Revolutionary Europe 1783–1815
(London, 1964), ch. 13 and espec. pp. 274–75; S. Schama, “The Exigencies of War and the Politics of Taxation in the Netherlands 1795–1810,” in Winter (ed.),
War and Economic Development
, pp. 111, 117, 128.

86.
Quoted in Glover,
Napoleonic Wars
, p. 129; and compare with Guibert’s remarkable pre-Revolution forecast of a people “who, knowing how to make war cheaply and live on the spoils of victory, was not obliged to lay down its arms for reasons of finance”—as cited in
NCMH
, vol. 8, p. 217; and with Spenser Wilkinson’s remarks, quoted in Tilly (ed.),
Formation of National States in Western Europe
, pp. 147–48, 152.

87.
Glover,
Napoleonic Wars
, pp. 140–41; Jones,
Britain and the World
, pp. 22, 317; Sherwig,
Guineas and Gunpowder
, chs. 9–10.