At Day's Close: Night in Times Past (74 page)

15.
DUR
, Nov. 30, 1785; Borsay,
Urban Renaissance
, passim; Peter Clark,
The English Alehouse: A Social History
(London, 1983), 256–259.

16.
9 George II. c.20; “Mémoire sur Necessité d’Éclairer la Ville, Présenté par Quelques Citoyens au Conseil,” Jan. 26, 1775, Archives Geneve, Geneva; J. M. Beattie,
Policing and Punishment in London, 1660–1750: Urban Crime and the Limits of Terror
(Oxford, 2001), 221–223; Wolfgang Schivelbusch,
Disenchanted Night: The Industrialization of Light in the Nineteenth Century
, trans. Angela Davies (Berkeley, Calif., 1988), 9–14.

17.
Times
, May 14, 1807; “F. W.,”
LM
, Jan. 6, 1815; Jane Austen
, Sandition
(Boston, 1975), 221; O’Dea,
Lighting
, 98; Pounds,
Home
, 388; Brian T. Robson,
Urban Growth: An Approach
(London, 1973), 178–183; John A. Jakle,
City Lights: Illuminating the American Night
(Baltimore, 2001), 26–37.

18.
LC
, Jan. 17, 1758; “Case of the Petitioners against the Bill, for Establishing a Nightly-Watch within the City of Bristol,” 1755, BL;
PA
, July 15, 1785; Alan Williams,
The Police of Paris, 1718–1789
(Baton Rouge, 1979), 71; Ruff,
Violence
, 88–91.

19.
BC,
Aug. 11, 1762; David Philips and Robert D. Storch,
Policing Provincial England, 1829–1856: The Politics of Reform
(London, 1999), 63; Beattie,
Crime
, 67–72; Elaine A. Reynolds,
Before the Bobbies: The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London, 1720–1830
(Stanford, Calif., 1998); Stanley H. Palmer,
Police and Protest in England and Ireland, 1780–1850
(Cambridge, 1988), passim; David Philips, “‘A New Engine of Power and Authority’: The Institutionalization of Law-Enforcement in England 1780–1830,” in Gatrell et al., eds.,
Crime and the Law
, 155–189; James F. Richardson,
Urban Police in the United States
(Port Washington, N.Y., 1974), 19–28.

20.
“Night Hawk,”
Mechanics Free Press
(Philadelphia), Nov. 7, 1829; Louis Bader, “Gas Illumination in New York City, 1823–1863” (Ph.D. diss., New York Univ., 1970), 334; Mary Lee Mann, ed.,
A Yankee Jeffersonian: Selections from the Diary and Letters of William Lee of Massachusetts
(Cambridge, Mass., 1958), 37; Pounds,
Home
, 388; Johan Goudsblom,
Fire and Civilization
(London, 1992), 150, 176–178. For the salutary impact of street lighting, in general, on crime, see Jane Jacobs,
The Death and Life of Great American Cities
(New York, 1961), 41–42; Kate Painter, “Designing Out Crime—Lighting, Safety and the Urban Realm,” in Andrew Lovatt et al., eds.,
The 24-Hour City
... (Manchester, 1994), 133–138.

21.
Maurice Rollinat,
Oeuvres
(Paris, 1972), II, 282. Allan Silver, “The Demand for Order in Civil Society: A Review of Some Themes in the History of Urban Crime, Police and Riot,” in D. Bordua, ed.,
The Police: Six Sociological Essays
(New York, 1967), 1–24; Anna Clark,
Women’s Silence, Men’s Violence: Sexual Assault in England, 1770–1845
(New York, 1987), 118.

22.
Ralph Waldo Emerson,
Essays & Lectures
, ed. Joel Porte (New York, 1983), 1067; Joachim Schlör,
Nights in the Big City: Paris, Berlin, London 1840–1930
, trans. Pierre Gottfried Imhof and Dafydd Rees Roberts (London, 1998), 287; Mark J. Bouman, “The ‘Good Lamp Is the Best Police’ Metaphor and Ideologies of the Nineteenth-Century Urban Landscape,”
American Studies
32 (1991), 66.

23.
The Journeyman Engineer,
The Great Unwashed
(London, 1869), 199; A. H. Bullen, ed.,
The Works of Thomas Middleton
(1885; rpt. edn., New York, 1964), VIII, 14; A. Roger Ekirch, “Sleep We Have Lost: Pre-industrial Slumber in the British Isles,”
AHR
106 (2001), 383–385; Thomas A. Wehr, “A ‘Clock for All Seasons’ in the Human Brain,” in R. M. Buijs et al., eds.,
Hypothalamic Integration of Circadian Rhythms
(Amsterdam, 1996), 319–340; Thomas A. Wehr, “The Impact of Changes in Nightlength (Scotoperiod) on Human Sleep,” in F.W. Turek and P.C. Zee, eds.,
Neurobiology of Sleep and Circadian Rhythms
(New York, 1999), 263–285; P. Lippmann, “Dreams and Psychoanalysis: A Love-Hate Story,”
Psychoanlytic Psychology
17 (2000), 627–650. Of dreams, Roger Bastide has written: “In our Western civilization, ... the bridges between the diurnal and nocturnal halves of man have been cut. Of course, people can always be found—and not only in the lower classes of society—who consult dream books, or who at least examine their dreams and assign to them a role in their lives. But such vital functions of the dream remain personal and never become institutionalized. On the contrary, far from constituting regularized norms of conduct they are considered aberrant; they are classed as ‘superstitions’; sometimes it is even suggested that people who look for significance or direction in dreams are not entirely all there” (“The Sociology of the Dream,” in Gustave Von Grunebaum,
The Dream and Human Societies
[Berkeley, Calif., 1966], 200–201).

24.
R. W. Flint, ed.,
Marinetti: Selected Writings
, trans. R. W. Flint and Arthur A. Coppotelli (New York, 1979), 56.

25.
Frederic J. Baumgartner,
A History of Papal Elections
(New York, 2003), 191; Rev. Dr. Render,
A Tour through Germany
... (London, 1801), II, 37. Although the year is wrongly given as 1816, the
Zeitung
article, “Arguments against Light,” is translated in M. Luckiesh,
Artificial Light: Its Influence upon Civilization
(New York, 1920), 157–158.

26.
Schlör,
Nights in the Big City
, trans. Imhof and Roberts, 66; Christian Augustus Gottlief Goede,
A Foreigner’s Opinion of England
... , trans. Thomas Horne (Boston, 1822), 47; Richard L. Bushman,
The Refinement of America: Persons, Houses, Cities
(New York, 1992), 365; Garnert,
Lampan
, 126; Schindler,
Rebellion
, 221; Eugen Weber,
France Fin de Siècle
(Cambridge, Mass., 1986), 54.

27.
Victor Hugo,
Les Misérables
, trans. Isabel F. Hapgood (New York, 1887), II, Pt. 1, 313–316; Schivelbusch,
Disenchanted Night
, 105, 97–114, passim; Wolfgang Schivelbusch, “The Policing of Street Lighting,”
Yale French Studies
73 (1987), 73, 61–74, passim; Eugène Defrance,
Histoire de l’Éclairage des Rues de Paris
(Paris, 1904), 104–106; Garnert,
Lampan
, 123–129.

28.
Joseph Lawson,
Letters to the Young on Progress in Pudsey during the Last Sixty Years
(Stanningley, Eng., 1887), 33; [Charles Shaw],
When I Was a Child
(1903; rpt. edn., Firle, Eng., 1977), 37; Silvia Mantini, “Notte in Città, Notte in Campagna tra Medioevo ed Età Moderna,” in Mario Sbriccoli, ed.,
La Notte: Ordine, Sicurezza e Disciplinamento in Età Moderna
(Florence, 1991), 42; Pounds,
Culture
, 420–423; James Obelkevich,
Religion and Rural Society: South Lindsey, 1825–1875
(Oxford, 1976), passim; Judith Develin,
The Superstitious Mind: French Peasants and the Supernatural in the Nineteenth Century
(New Haven, 1987).

29.
George Sturt,
Change in the Village
(1912; rpt. edn., Harmondsworth, Eng., 1984), 121, 8.

30.
Dagobert D. Runes,
The Diary and Sundry Observations of Thomas Alva Edison
(New York, 1948), 232; Ekirch, “Sleep We have Lost,” 383–385; Patricia Edmonds, “In Jampacked Days, Sleep Time is the First to Go,”
USA Today
, April 10, 1995; Andree Brooks, “For Teen-Agers, Too Much to Do, Too Little Time for Sleep,”
New York Times
, Oct. 31, 1996; Amanda Onion, “The No-Doze Soldier: Military Seeking Radical Ways of Stumping Need for Sleep,” Dec. 18, 2002, Web:
www.abcNEWS.com
. For explorations of nighttime in modern life, see Murray Melbin,
Night as Frontier: Colonizing the World after Dark
(New York, 1987); Kevin Coyne,
A Day in the Night of America
(New York, 1992); A. Alvarez,
Night: Night Life, Night Language, Sleep, and Dreams
(New York, 1995); Christopher Dewdney,
Acquainted with the Night: Excursions through the World after Dark
(New York, 2004).

31.
Montague Summers, ed.,
Dryden: The Dramatic Works
(1932; rpt. edn., New York, 1968), VI, 159; Arthur R. Upgren, “Night Blindness,”
Amicus Journal
17 (1996), 22–25; David L. Crawford, “Light Pollution—Theft of the Night,” in Derek McNally, ed.,
The Vanishing Universe: Adverse Environmental Impacts on Astronomy
(Cambridge, 1994), 27–33.

32.
Warren E. Leary, “Russia’s Space Mirror Bends Light of Sun into the Dark,”
NYT, Times
, Feb. 5, 1993; “Russian Space Mirror Reflector Prototype Fails,”
Boston Globe
, Feb.5, 1999.

INDEX

Page numbers in
italics
refer to illustrations

Adamites,
229

Adams, John, 85, 189, 190

Adams, Thomas, 292

Addison, Joseph, 109–10, 216

adultery, 191, 193–94, 314

Adventures of Peregrine Pickle, The
(Smollett), 306

Aeneid
(Virgil), 303

African cultures, 4, 303, 320

Agostinetti, Di Giacomo, 170

Alan of Lille, 268, 302

Alberti, Leon Battista, 96, 124

Albertus Magnus, 76

alcohol,
see
drinking

ale, 25, 161, 164, 188, 235

alehouses, 25, 46–47, 116, 187–90, 208, 330

clientele of, 188

displays of strength in, 190

female patrons of, 190, 192

furnishings of, 187

libertines in, 218,
219,
220, 222–23

male companionship in, 187, 189–90

murders in, 46

as night-cellars, 236, 250,
251,
252

prostitutes in, 190, 223, 244

All Hallow’s Eve, 140

Allison, Jane, 305–6

almanacs, 129

Alorese people, 320

America, 5, 10, 26, 28, 30, 35, 44, 91, 95, 110, 112, 145

almanacs published in, 129

aristocratic gangs in, 217

arson in, 55

bundling in, 197, 199, 200, 201, 202

candlewood in, 109

cesspool emptying in, 166

corn huskings of, 177–78

courtship in, 191

crime in, 33

curfews in, 256

drunkenness in, 25

fire-hunting in, 241

fire-priggers in, 55–56

fires in, 49–50, 51–52, 55–56

game laws of, 241

indentured servants in, 233

lookouts in, 77

mishaps in, 28

mosquitoes in, 294

nightwatch in, 76, 79, 81, 250

nightwatch’s weapons in, 77

prostitution in, 244

punishment for burglary in, 87

removal of dead bodies in, 167

robberies in, 35

tallow candles in, 106

taverns in, 189, 190, 192–93

trained police force and, 80

wolves in, 30

women’s nocturnal labor in, 163, 177

youth gangs in, 233

see also
slaves

American Revolution, 257

“Aminta One Night had Occasion to Piss,” 296

Amory, Thomas, 14

Amphitryon
(Dryden), 338–39

Amsterdam, 20,
50,
112

alehouses in, 46

aristocratic gangs in, 224

canal barriers in, 64

drinking houses of, 236

height of buildings in, 26

lantern lighting mandated in, 67

Leidsegracht canal of, 26

nocturnal labor in, 157

streetlights in, 72

tavern brawls in, 47

watchmen in church towers of, 77

watchmen’s weapons in, 77

amulets, 98, 99, 142

Anabaptists, 228–29

Anatomy of Melancholy, The
(Burton), 289

andatores di notte,
32

Angel of Darkness, 4

animals,
see
livestock; wild animals

Antigua, 257–58

Antioch, 5

apparitions, celestial, 10

Appleyard, Walter, 198

apprentices, 81, 232–35, 281

beds of, 277–78

curfews on, 256

lying-out by, 232–33, 255

nocturnal excursions of, 234–35

pilfering by, 240

runaway, 234

in youth gangs, 222, 245, 247, 249, 252, 253

ar cannerez
,
19

Archer, Isaac, 115, 272

Ardennes Forest, 30

Arkwight, Sir Richard, 327

Aristotle, 119, 205, 263, 313

Armageddon, 15

Arrais, Amador, 307

arson, 37, 52–55, 63, 238, 257

of burglars, 54

“fireraising,” 54–55

motives for, 55

punishments for, 48–49, 53, 54

threats of, in anonymous letters, 54

Artemidorus of Ephesus, 313

Arthur, Mary, 282

artificial illumination, 332–39

bogwood, 108–9

broken sleep and, 303–4, 334–35

candlewood, 104, 108–9, 162, 236

carrying of, as legal mandate, 67, 129

of Church festivals, 70–71

costs of, 73, 162, 295

electric lighting, 6, 104, 110, 337

eyesight affected by, 207

fires caused by, 51–52

in the home, 100–111

of military engagements, 68–69

navigating in darkness vs., 110

of noble entertainments, 210, 211, 212

of nocturnal excursions, 124–27, 131

of nocturnal labor, 156, 161–63, 174

poor quality of, 110–11, 127

at public celebrations, 69

reading by, 207

rules for use of, 109–10

rushlights, 106–7, 111, 162, 207, 295, 336

as sacrilege against divine order, 72

wind’s dousing of, 127, 131, 134

see also
candles; lanterns; oil lamps; street lighting

Ascham, Roger, 232

Ashmole, Elias, 316

assaults, 33, 40, 43, 115

on male intruders in spinning bees, 183

on nightwatch, 83–84, 224, 249, 250, 253

on pedestrians, 45, 47, 139, 224, 225

punishments for, 86–87

sexual,
see
rapes

by youth gangs, 247–49, 250

Asselijn, Jan,
177

assemblies, 212–13, 328

astronomy, Renaissance, 12

Atheist, The
(Otway), 282

Atkinson, Luke, 306–7

Aubrey, John, 110, 150–51, 186, 270

Augustine, Saint, 87

aurora borealis, 10

Austen, Jane, 331

Autumn Harvest
(
Grape-picking
) (Bassano),
169

Babylon, 4

Bacchylides, 191

Bacon, Francis, 120

badges of shame, 151

Badrett, Sarah, 190

Bagbury ghost, 19

Bagnio, The
(Hogarth),
221

Bailyn, Bernard, 153

bakers, 52, 158, 161, 175, 278

Baldwin, William, 163, 301

Ballard, Martha, 113, 134, 163

Ballers gang, 225

Ballet de la Nuit, Le
(Benserade), 211

Bancroft, John, 51

bandits, 35–36, 137, 143–44

banshees, 19

Barbados, 233–34, 248–49, 257

Barber, Mary, 117

Barcelona:

prostitutes in, 65

public celebrations of, 69

removal of dead bodies in, 167

“Barguest of York,” 17

Bartholomaeus Anglicus, 14, 63

Bartoli, Daniello, 60, 180, 203

Bartram, William, 176

Basil the Great, Saint, 20

Bassano, Francesco, the Younger,
169

Bastard, The,
151

bats, 30

Bavaria, 45, 92, 164, 167, 235

Baxter, Margaret, 320

Baxter, Richard, 264, 280, 302–3, 320

bears, 30, 171

Beattie, John, 72

Beck, David, 118, 160, 205

communal sleep of, 296

early winter bedtime of, 265

sleep disturbance of, 291

visiting by, 186–87

writing of, 207–9

youth gang encountered by, 247–48

Beck, Roeltje, 208

Beckford, William, 212, 293

bedbugs, 269–70, 294–95

bedding, 271, 274, 276–77,
277

insects in, 269–70, 288, 294–95

pillows in, 274,
275

bed-faggot, 280

bedfellows,
see
communal sleep

beds, 274–79,
275,
286,
289

communal,
see
communal sleep

curtained, 274,
275,
279, 297

elevated, 274,
275,
276

functions of, 276

high value of, 274–76

of lower classes, 276–79, 287, 296, 297, 299

sleep disturbed by, 295–96, 297

straw pallets, 274, 276–77, 287

trundle, 276

of urban poor, 278

of vagabonds, 278

warming of, 270, 294

bed-staffs, 94–95

bedtime rituals, xxvi, 268–73

alcoholic drinks in, 271

banking fireplaces in, 270

bug hunts in, 269–70, 295,
295

family prayers in, 272

magic invoked in, 272–73

nightdress in, 270–71

servants’ duties in, 271

soporific medicine in, 271

warming beds in, 270, 294

bedtimes, 137, 138, 205, 206, 301, 324, 334

early, 263–64, 265

eating before, 271–72

proverbs about, 264, 266

reading at, 52, 281, 310

seasonal variations in, 266

standard, 265–66

beer, 25, 156–57, 161, 164, 173–74, 187, 235

benefits of, 188

Beerstraten, Jan,
50

beggars, 65, 231, 237–38,
318

badges of shame worn by, 151

beds of, 278

Behaim, Frederich, 207

Beham, Hans Sebald,
195

Behn, Aphra, 153

Bella, Gabriel,
71

benandanti
cult, 319

Benedictine order, 302

Bennet, Agnes, 191

Benserade, Isaac de, 211, 276

Beowulf,
20

Bergerac, Cyrano de, 42

Berlin Becomes a Metropolis,
334

Best, Henry, 170, 171, 305

Beware of the Cat
(Baldwin), 163, 301

Bewick, Thomas, 121–22,
131

Bibb, Henry, 239

Biddle, Francis, 175

Bigot, Trophîme,
108

Bishe, Thomas, 244

black dogs, 15, 96

Black Forest, 55

Blackmore, Sir Richard, 49

blacksmiths, 156, 161,
162,
175

Blackstone, Sir William, 88

blanket fair, 281

blindman’s holiday, 155

boats, 25, 62, 172

nocturnal excursions by, 137

nocturnal labor on, 160

pilfering and, 175

Boccaccio, Giovanni, 193, 220

Boccardi, Lorenzo and Giacobo, 172

boggarts, 18, 140

bogwood, 108–9

Boisseau, Jean Jacques de,
181

Boke of Curtasye,
104

Bond, Jane, 163

bonfires,
29,
55, 69

Boorde, Andrew, 264, 305

Boothe, Chester, 10

Borde, Marquis de la, 106

Boscawen, Fanny and Edward, 134

Boswell, James, 70, 95, 118–19, 145, 150, 282

communal sleep of, 280

disguises worn by, 219–20, 222

dreams of, 316, 317, 322

low debauchery enjoyed by, 219–20, 222

on sleep, 267, 268, 270, 287, 304

weapons carried by, 142

Bouchet, Guillaume, 285

boulster lectures, 283,
283

Bourne, Henry, 140, 180, 254

Bovey, James, 310

Bovier de Fontenelle, Bernard le, 12, 153

boxing, 190

Bradbourn, Twisden, 143

Bradwell, Stephen, 271, 276

Bräker, Ulrich, 90, 123–24, 145, 176, 202, 290

Bramer, Leonaert, 231

Brand, John, 19

Brannam, Dennes, 36

“Brave Men at Fires” (Franklin), 115

Bravos, 44

Breton, Nicholas, 91, 151, 182, 267, 323

breweries, 52, 156–57, 161

Brewerton, Jane, 237

briganti,
36

British Magazine,
151

broken sleep, 300–311, 339

artificial illumination and, 303–4, 334–35

Church practices and, 302–3

class differences in, 304

in communal sleep, 308

darkness and, 303–4

in early classical literature, 303

“first sleep” in, 300–302, 303, 305, 308, 311–12, 320,
321,
322–23, 335, 337

in non-Western cultures, 303, 304

reproductive fertility enhanced by, 308–10

“second” sleep in, 301, 303, 306

broken sleep, wakefulness interval in, 300, 301, 303, 305–11, 335

criminal activities in, 306–7

dreams and, 322–23, 334–35

excretory needs in, 305

magic in, 307

personal reflection in, 310–11

prayers in, 307–8

protection in, 304, 322

semi-conscious state in, 311

sexual activity in, 308–10

work done in, 305–6

brothels, 218, 220, 226, 244, 245, 253

homosexual, 230

Brouwer, Adriaen, 118,
127

Brown, John, 170

Brown, Tom, 152

Browne, Sir Thomas, 261, 286, 312, 313

brownies, 18

Buckhurst, Lord, 223

Bugles gang, 225

bulkers,
29,
278

Bullein, William, 272

bull’s-eye lanterns, 125

bundling, 197–202

chaperonage of, 200

chastity protected in, 199

conversations in, 200, 202

enduring popularity of, 201

functions of, 201–2

garments removed for, 199

illegitimacy rates linked to, 200

parental permission for, 199, 201

physical contact in, 200–201

privacy afforded by, 201

rules of, 199

sexual activity in, 200–201, 202

as “sitting up,” 198, 199, 201

trial period provided by, 202

bundling boards, 199

Bundschuh
disturbances, 54–55

bunters, 160

burglaries, burglars, 36–42, 76, 88, 94, 95, 99, 128

arson of, 54

candles as deterrents of, 101

daytime, 38

death penalty for, 87

definition of, 36–37

ghosts impersonated by, 41

in large gangs, 37, 38–39

magic used by, 41, 42

quick rewards of, 37–38

rural, 38–39,
39

seasonal variation in, 39

smugglers impersonated by, 243

unusual noises and, 34, 37

violent, 37, 38, 40

watchdogs and, 96, 97

burials, nocturnal, 213, 229, 237

Burke, Edmund, 3

Burkitt, William, 157