Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years (188 page)

26
T. Johnson, 'Gardening for God: Carmelite Deserts and the Sacralization of Natural Space in Counter-Reformation Spain', in W. Coster and A. Spicer (eds.),
Sacred Space in Early Modern Europe
(Cambridge, 2005), 193-210, at 196.

27
'Method for the visitation of convents', qu. and tr. A. Weber,
Teresa of Avila and the Rhetoric of Femininity
(Princeton and London, 1990), 6.

28
'Camino de perfeccion', ibid., 41.

29
E. Allison Peers (ed.),
St. John of the Cross: Dark Night of the Soul
(London, 1976), 2 [Prologue, Stanzas of the Soul, 5-8].

30
The Spiritual Canticle
22.4: K. Kavanaugh and O. Rodriguez (eds.),
The Collected Works of St. John of the Cross
(Washington, DC, 1964), 497.

31
Ascent of Mount Carmel
Bk 1, Ch. 1, sect. 2, qu. Allison Peers (ed.),
St. John of the Cross
, ix.

32
Ibid., 3 [Bk 1, preliminary exposition].

33
E. K. Rowe, 'St Teresa and Olivares: Patron Sainthood, Royal Favourites and the Politics of Plurality in 17th-century Spain',
SCJ
, 37 (2006), 721-38.

34
Statistic from M. P. Holt,
The French Wars of Religion
(Cambridge, 1995), 94.

35
On the quotation's lack of authenticity, see M. Wolfe, 'The Conversion of Henri IV and the Origins of Bourbon Absolutism',
Historical Reflections/Reflexions Historiques
, 14 (1987), 287-309, at 287.

36
G. Champeaud, 'The Edict of Poitiers and the Treaty of Nerac, or Two Steps towards the Edict of Nantes',
SCJ
, 32 (2001), 319-33.

37
N. Davies,
God's Playground: A History of Poland. 1: The Origins to 1795
(Oxford, 1981), 413-25.

38
A brilliant summary exposition of this paradox is P. Stolarski, 'Dominican - Jesuit Rivalry and the Politics of Catholic Renewal in Poland, 1564-1648',
JEH
(forthcoming). Similar tensions, which were felt all over Counter-Reformation Europe, might be much less productive wherever Catholicism was weak, as for instance in Elizabethan and early Stuart England. For an absorbing case study on the results there, see M. C. Questier,
Catholicism and Community in Early Modern England: Politics, Aristocratic Patronage and Religion, c. 1550-1640
(Cambridge, 2006).

39
S. Ditchfield, 'Text before Trowel: Antonio Bosio's
Roma sotteranea
Revisited', in R. N. Swanson (ed.),
The Church Retrospective
(
SCH
, 33, 1997), 343-60; T. Johnson, 'Holy Fabrications: The Catacomb Saints and the Counter-Reformation in Bavaria',
JEH
, 47 (1996), 274-97, esp. at 277-81.

40
On locking churches, A. Spicer,
Calvinist Churches in Early Modern Europe
(Aldershot, 2007), 228. Benedict, 436, provides a dramatic example of reduction in clerical numbers: in 1500 the bishopric of Utrecht had around eighteen thousand clergy, but in the seventeenth century the Protestant parish system in the same area had 1,524 ministers.

41
W. de Boer,
The Conquest of the Soul: Confession, Discipline and Social Order in Counter-Reformation Milan
(Leiden, 2000).

42
D. Gentilcore, ' "Adapt yourselves to the People's capabilities": Missionary Strategies, Methods and Impact in the Kingdom of Naples, 1600-1800',
JEH
, 45 (1994), 269-95.

43
For further discussion, see MacCulloch, 549-50. On Gregory's Constantinian agenda, N. Courtright,
The Papacy and the Art of Reform in 16th-century Rome: Gregory XIII's Tower of the Winds in the Vatican
(Cambridge, 2003), 33-40, 65-8.

44
M. Sharratt,
Galileo: Decisive Innovator
(Oxford, 1994), and see further summary discussion of Copernican astronomy and the Galileo affair in MacCulloch, 685-8.

45
For further discussion of Protestants and Jews in the Reformation, see ibid., 688-91.

46
For summary discussion and critique, see ibid., 604-7, but the question is magisterially discussed by the essayists of H. Lehmann and G. Roth (eds.),
Weber's
Protestant ethic
: Origins, Evidence, Contexts
(Cambridge, 1993).

47
MacCulloch, 650, and for discussion of marriage and the family, ibid., 651-4.

48
There is at last a decent scholarly edition of the
Malleus
with English translation: H. Institoris and J. Sprenger, ed. C. S. Mackay,
Malleus Maleficarum
(2 vols., Cambridge, 2006). For further comment on the
Malleus
, MacCulloch, 565-8.

49
For the English profile, see M. Gaskill,
Crime and Mentalities in Early Modern England
(Cambridge, 2000), 48-66, at 78. K. Thomas,
Religion and the Decline of Magic
(2nd edn, London, 1973), 660-69, made the suggestion that witchcraft accusations generally arose from tensions over the breakdown of traditional hospitality obligations to the marginal. This may have some justification, but will not do as a general mode of explanation. For the vulnerable position of widows, see A. Rowlands, 'Witchcraft and Old Women in Early Modern Germany',
PP
, 173 (November 2001), 50-89, esp. 65, 70, 78.

50
C. Larner,
Enemies of God: The Witch-hunt in Scotland
(London, 1981), esp. 63, 107.

19: A Worldwide Faith (1500-1800)

1
For documents on these intolerances, see Koschorke et al. (eds.), 15-16, 27-9.

2
Qu. in S. G. Payne,
A History of Spain and Portugal
(Madison, 1973), 239.

3
D. Abulafia,
The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus
(New Haven and London, 2008), Chs. 4-8, esp. 49-51, 67, 71, 97-8; F. Fernandez-Armesto,
The Canary Islands after the Conquest
(Oxford, 1982), 10-12, 39-40, 125-9, 201-2; comment by P. E. Russell,
JEH
, 31 (1980), 115.

4
C. R. Johnson, 'Renaissance German Cosmographers and the Naming of America',
PP
, 191 (May 2006), 3-44.

5
Cf. the remarks of F. Cervantes, reviewing L. N. Rivera,
A Violent Evangelism: The Political and Religious Conquest of the Americas
(Louisville, KY, 1992),
JEH
, 45 (1994), 509.

6
Koschorke et al. (eds.), 292-3.

7
A. Hastings, 'Latin America', in Hastings (ed.), 328-68, at 340.

8
Estimates respectively in R. Bireley,
The Refashioning of Catholicism, 1450-1700
(Houndmills, 1999), 147, and P. N. Mancall, ' "The ones who hold up the world": Native American History since the Columbian Quincentennial',
HJ
, 47 (2004), 477-90, at 478.

9
This is the suggestion of J. H. Elliott,
Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America, 1492-1830
(New Haven and London, 2006), 79-81, 86-7.

10
T. Cummins, 'A Sculpture, a Column and a Painting: The Tension between Art and History',
Art Bulletin
, 77 (1995), 371-7, at 373-4.

11
J. Lara,
Christian Texts for Aztecs: Art and Liturgy in Colonial Mexico
(Notre Dame, IND, 2008), 20, 24, 32, 37, 81. On Augustine's mission, see pp. 336-40.

12
Lara,
Christian Texts for Aztecs
, 87, with illustration of a possible further example.

13
Elliott,
Empires of the Atlantic World
, 20.

14
J. Lara,
City, Temple, Stage: Eschatological Architecture and Liturgical Theatrics in New Spain
(Notre Dame, IN, 2004), esp. 17-21.

15
Ibid., esp. 111-50, and see also J. A. Licate,
Creation of a Mexican Landscape: Territorial Organisation and Settlement in the Eastern Puebla Basin, 1520-1605
(Chicago, 1981).

16
R. Ricard,
The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico: An Essay on the Apostolate and Evangelising Methods of the Mendicant Orders in New Spain, 1523-1572
(Berkeley, 1966), 31-6.

17
Lara,
Christian Texts for Aztecs
, 187, 194-9.

18
I. Clendinnen,
Ambivalent Conquests: Maya and Spaniard in Yucatan, 1517-1570
(Cambridge, 1987), 40-41, 72-109; Ricard,
The Spiritual Conquest of
Mexico, 264-5.

19
Bireley,
The Refashioning of Catholicism, 1450-1700
, 153-4, 158.

20
Ricard,
The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico
, 122-3.

21
Hastings, 'Latin America', 346.

22
On 'anima', see L. M. Burkhart, 'The Solar Christ in Nahuatl Doctrinal Texts of Early Colonial Mexico',
Ethnohistory
, 35 (1988), 234-56, at 242. On Hell, note the recommendations of Don Bartolome de Alva in his
Guide to Confession Large and Small in the Mexican Language
: see the review by S. Schroeder of the modern edition of Alva's work by B. D. Sell and J. F. Schwaller with L. A. Homza (Norman, OKL, 1999),
Ethnohistory
, 48 (2001), 361-3, at 362. See also Ricard,
The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico
, 49-50.

23
Ibid., 183-7.

24
K. Burns,
Colonial Habits: Convents and the Spiritual Economy of Cuzco, Peru
(Durham, NC, 1999), 2-21, 27-37, 80, 113.

25
D. Brading,
Our Lady of Guadalupe, Image and Tradition 1531-2000
(Cambridge, 2001), 58-70, 361-8.

26
Koschorke et al. (eds.), 17-18, 24-6; P. K. Thomas,
Christians and Christianity in India
(London, 1954), 51-4.

27
Koschorke et al. (eds.), 26, 45-6, 55-6.

28
J. Brodrick,
Saint Francis Xavier (1506-1552)
(London, 1952), 239-40; on the burning of Jeronimo Dias, see Koschorke et al. (eds.), 16.

29
V. Cronin,
A Pearl to India: The Life of Roberto de Nobili
(London, 1959); Koschorke et al. (eds.), 36-8.

30
K. S. Latourette,
A History of the Expansion of Christianity
(7 vols., London, 1938-47), III, 336-66.

31
J. D. Spence,
The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci
(London, 1984), is illuminating on Ricci's
mentalite
, and V. Cronin,
The Wise Man from the West
(London, 1955), is still worth reading.

32
Baltasar Teles (my italics): M. Brockey,
Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1579-1724
(Cambridge, MA, 2007), 212, 218.

33
Statistics: Latourette,
A History of the Expansion of Christianity
, III, 344, 348. For a judiciously sceptical view of Jesuit myth-making about their Chinese mission, see Brockey,
Journey to the East
, 47-56.

34
Ibid., 134 -41, 172-4, 350-65, and on 'Chinese virgins', R. G. Tiedemann, 'China and Its Neighbours', in Hastings (ed.), 369-415, at 384.

35
Brockey,
Journey to the East
, 179-203; for the 1704 decree, Koschorke et al. (eds.), 39 - 41.

36
The best single account of the mission is C. R. Boxer,
The Christian Century in Japan, 549-1650
(Berkeley, 1967).

37
G. Schurhammer,
Francis Xavier: His Life, His Times
(4 vols., Rome, 1973-82), IV, 269, 440, 447, 547, 555.

38
Boxer,
The Christian Century in Japan, 1549-1650
, 72-83, 89.

39
For the edict decreeing closure and the 'oath of apostasy' of 1645, see Koschorke et al. (eds.), 31-3.

40
S. Turnbull, 'Diversity or Apostasy? The Case of the Japanese "Hidden Christians" ', in R. N. Swanson (ed.),
Unity and Diversity in the Church
(
SCH
, 32, 1996), 441-54.

41
Sundkler and Steed, 46.

42
Bireley,
The Refashioning of Catholicism
, 162; see pp. 725 and 728.

43
Ibid., 162.

44
R. J. Morgan, 'Jesuit Confessors, African Slaves and the Practice of Confession in Seventeenth Century Cartagena', in K. J. Lualdi and A. T. Thayer (eds.),
Penitence in the Age of Reformations
(Aldershot, 2000), 222-39. On Loanda (Luanda), Hastings, 124.

45
Sundkler and Steed, 318.

46
Ibid., 51.

47
Hastings, 124-5.

48
J. K. Thornton,
The Kingdom of Kongo: Civil War and Transition, 1641-1718
(Madison, 1983), esp. 63-8.

49
Sundkler and Steed, 59-60. See the definitive study by J. K. Thornton,
The Kongolese Saint Anthony: Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita and the Antonian Movement, 1684-1706
(Cambridge, 1998).

50
D. de Gois,
Fides, religio, moresque Aethiopum
(Louvain, 1540); I am grateful to Thomas Earle for drawing this to my attention.

51
On the Jesuit explorer Pedro Paez Xaramillo, SJ, see J. Reverte,
Dios, el Diablo y la Aventura
(Barcelona, 2001).

52
Hastings, 136-60. On nude baptisms, S. Munro-Hay,
Ethiopia, the Unknown Land: A Cultural and Historical Guide
(London, 2002), 51, and on iconography, ibid., 56.

53
For a study of this circular process, see J. L. Matory,
Black Atlantic Religion: Tradition, Transnationalism, and Matriarchy in the Afro-Brazilian Candomble
(Princeton, 2005).

54
B. E. Schmidt, 'The Presence of Vodou in New York City: The Impact of a Caribbean Religion on the Creolization of a Metropolis', in G. Collier and U. Fleischmann (eds.),
A Pepper-pot of Cultures: Aspects of Creolization in the Caribbean
,
Matatu
, 27-8 (2003), 213-34, esp. 219.