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Authors: Philip Dwyer

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2
.
This idea is more fully elaborated in Philip Dwyer, ‘Napoleon and the Drive for Glory: Reflections on the Making of French Foreign Policy’, in Dwyer (ed.),
Napoleon and Europe
, pp. 118–35.
3
.
On Napoleon’s relations with the pope see Henri Welschinger,
Le pape et l’empereur, 1804–1815
(Paris, 1905), pp. 1–45; E. E. Y. Hales,
Napoleon and the Pope: The Story of Napoleon and Pius VII
(London, 1962); Margaret M. O’Dwyer,
The Papacy in the Age of Napoleon and the Restoration: Pius
VII, 1800–1823
(Lanham, Md, 1985), pp. 83–124; Melchior-Bonnet,
Napoléon et le Pape
; Robin Anderson,
Pope Pius VII, 1800–1823: His
Life, Reign and Struggle with Napoleon in the Aftermath of the French Revolution
(Rockford, Ill., 2001); Boudon,
Histoire du Consulat et de l’Empire
, pp. 342–58; Lentz,
Nouvelle histoire du Premier Empire
, i. pp. 349–70, 482–500; ii. pp. 106–34.
4
.
Corr.
xi. n. 9655, and xii. n. 9805 (7 January, 13 February 1806).
5
.
Cited in Melchior-Bonnet,
Napoléon et le Pape
, p. 89.
6
.
Joseph Othenin Bernard de Cléron, comte d’Haussonville,
L’Eglise romaine et le Premier Empire, 1800–1814
, 5 vols (Paris, 1868–9), ii. pp. 305–9; John Tracy Ellis,
Cardinal Consalvi and Anglo-Papal Relations, 1814–1824
(Washington, DC, 1942), pp. 15–17; Robinson,
Cardinal Consalvi
, pp. 81–5.
7
.
Corr.
xv. n. 13093 (31 August 1807).
8
.
Corr.
xvi. n. 13441 (10 January 1808).
9
.
Corr.
xvi. n. 13536 (7 February 1808).
10
.
Ellis, ‘Religion According to Napoleon’, p. 248.
11
.
Cited in Melchior-Bonnet,
Napoléon et le Pape
, pp. 101 and 102.
12
.
Lentz,
Nouvelle histoire du Premier Empire
, i. 370; Ellis, ‘Religion According to Napoleon’, pp. 248–9.
13
.
On this annexation of the Roman states see Lentz,
Nouvelle histoire du Premier Empire
, i. pp. 526–34.
14
.
Claude-François André d’Arbelles,
Tableau historique de la politique de la cour de Rome, depuis l’origine de sa puissance temporelle jusqu’à nos jours
(Paris, 1810).
15
.
For an overview of this complex problem see Esdaile,
Napoleon’s Wars
, pp. 301–45; Charles Esdaile,
The Peninsular War: A New History
(London, 2003), pp. 1–36.
16
.
This is the view of Schroeder,
Transformation of European Politics
, pp. xi, 230, 284, 393; and Paul W. Schroeder, ‘Napoleon’s Foreign Policy: A Criminal Enterprise’,
Journal of Military History
, 54 (1990), 147–61.
17
.
Shuvalov to Alexander (15 May 1811), in
Sbornik
, xxi. p. 416.
18
.
Eli F. Heckscher,
The Continental System: An Economic Interpretation
(Oxford, 1922), pp. 92–4. Historians who have recently reiterated this point include Tulard,
Napoléon ou le mythe du sauveur
, pp. 205–6; David Gates,
The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War
(London, 1986), p. 6; Schroeder,
Transformation of European Politics
, pp. 307–10; Jean-Noël Brégeon,
Napoléon et la guerre d’Espagne: 1808–1814
(Paris, 2006), pp. 69–71; Michael V. Leggiere,
The Fall of Napoleon
, vol. i:
The Allied Invasion of France, 1813–1814
(New York, 2007), p. 2. There is necessarily a debate, as with all things Napoleonic, about whether the desire to defeat Britain led to the implementation of the blockade or whether the blockade led to the expansion of the Empire. A concise résumé of the debate can be found in Schroeder,
Transformation of European Politics
, pp. 307–9, along with the assertion that the Continental System was really part of a contest to see which of the three great powers – Britain, France or Russia – would dominate Europe.
19
.
Heckscher,
The Continental System
, pp. 78, 86, 95; Geoffrey Ellis,
Napoleon’s Continental Blockade: The Case of Alsace
(Oxford, 1981), pp. 110–48; Lentz,
Nouvelle histoire du Premier Empire
, i. p. 257.
20
.
Schroeder,
The Transformation of Europe
, p. 224; Nicole Gotteri,
Napoléon et le Portugal
(Paris, 2004), pp. 115–19.
21
.
The Directory had considered a number of plans to conquer Portugal between 1796 and 1799 (Gotteri,
Napoléon et le Portugal
, pp. 59–60).
22
.
Corr.
xv. n. 12928 (19 July 1807); Schroeder,
Transformation of Europe
, pp. 338–9; Gotteri,
Napoléon et le Portugal
, pp. 137–8.
23
.
Sorel,
L’Europe et la Révolution française
, vii. p. 217.
24
.
John Charles Chasteen,
Americanos: Latin America’s Struggle for Independence
(Oxford, 2008), p. 42.
25
.
According to Esdaile,
Napoleon’s Wars
, pp. 319–20, 328.
26
.
Corr.
xvi. nos. 13181, 13287 and 13300 (25 September, 23 and 27 October 1807).
27
.
Corr.
xvi. n. 13257 (16 October 1807). Junot was ordered into Spain
before
a Franco-Spanish accord had been reached.
28
.
Thiébault,
Mémoires
, iv. p. 139.
29
.
Gates,
The Spanish Ulcer
, p. 8.
30
.
Rory Muir,
Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon, 1807–1815
(New Haven, 1996), pp. 29–30. It was the first time that a European monarch had visited a colony; he was to stay in Rio de Janeiro for the next thirteen years. On the Portuguese court in Rio see Kirsten Schultz,
Tropical Versailles: Empire, Monarchy, and the Portuguese Royal Court in Rio de Janeiro, 1808–1821
(London, 2001).
31
.
Natalie Petiteau, ‘Les justifications impériales de l’intervention en Espagne’, in Gérard Dufour and Elisabel Larriba (eds),
L’Espagne en 1808: régénération ou révolution?
(Aix-en-Provence, 2009), p. 12.
32
.
Gabriel H. Lovett,
Napoleon
and the Birth of Modern
Spain
, 2 vols (New York, 1965), i. pp. 8–17, 23–6, 90; Hilt,
The Troubled Trinity
, pp. 12–18.
33
.
Alexandre Tratchevsky,
‘L’Espagne à l’époque de la Révolution française’,
Revue historique
, 31 (1886), 9.
34
.
Jacques Chastenet,
Manuel Godoy et l’Espagne de Goya
(Paris, 1961), p. 50; Elizabeth Vassall, Lady Holland,
The Spanish Journal of Elizabeth, Lady Holland
(London, 1910), p. 74; Lovett,
Napoleon
and the Birth of Modern
Spain
, i. p. 6.
35
.
AN AFIV 1680 (1), Philippe de Tournon to Napoleon, 20 December 1807; Philippe Loupès, ‘De Badajoz à Bayonne, l’irrésistible ascension de Manuel Godoy revisitée’, in Josette Pontet,
Napoléon, Bayonne et l’Espagne: actes du colloque
(Paris, 2011), pp. 95–103. On Godoy’s ascent see Hilt,
The Troubled Trinity
, pp. 6–9, 22–34.

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