Fields of Blood (83 page)

106.
Brown,
World of Late Antiquity,
pp. 166–68.

107.
Khosrow I, cited ibid., p. 166.

108.
Brown,
World of Late Antiquity,
pp. 160–65; Brown,
Rise of Western Christendom,
pp. 173–74.

109.
Maximus,
Ambigua
42, cited in Meyendorff,
Byzantine Theology,
p. 164.

110.
Maximus, Letter 2: On Love, 401D.

111.
Maximus,
Centuries on Love
1:61, cited in Andrew Lowth,
Maximus the Confessor
(London, 1996), pp. 39–40; Matthew 5:44; I Timothy 2:4.

112.
Meyndorff,
Byzantine Theology,
pp. 212–22.

1.
I have discussed the career of Muhammad and the history of Arabia in more detail in
Muhammad: A Prophet for Our Time
(London and New York, 2006).

2.
Muhammad A. Bamyeh,
The Social Origins of Islam: Mind, Economy, Discourse
(Minneapolis, 1999), pp. 11–12.

3.
Toshihiko Izutsu,
Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Qur’an
(Montreal and Kingston, ON, 2002), pp. 29, 46.

4.
R. A. Nicholson,
A Literary History of the Arabs
(Cambridge, UK, 1953), pp. 83, 28–45.

5.
Bamyeh,
Social Origins of Islam,
p. 38.

6.
Genesis 16, 17:25, 21:8–21.

7.
Quran 5:69, 88:17–20.

8.
Quran 3:84–85.

9.
W. Montgomery Watt,
Muhammad at Mecca
(Oxford, 1953), p. 68.

10.
Quran 90:13–17.

11.
Izutsu,
Ethico-Religious Concepts,
p. 28.

12.
Ibid., pp. 68–69; Quran 14:47, 39:37, 15:79, 30:47, 44:16.

13.
Quran 25:63, in
The Message of the Quran,
trans. Muhammad Asad (Gibraltar, 1980).

14.
W. Montgomery Watt,
Muhammad’s Mecca: History of the Quran
(Edinburgh, 1988), p. 25.

15.
W. Montgomery Watt,
Muhammad at Medina
(Oxford, 1956), pp. 173–231.

16.
Ibn Ishaq,
Sirat Rasul Allah,
in
The Life of Muhammad,
trans. and ed. A. Guillaume (London, 1955), p. 232.

17.
Watt,
Muhammad at Medina,
pp. 6–8; Bamyeh,
Social Origins of Islam,
pp. 198–99; Marshall G. S. Hodgson,
The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization,
3 vols. (Chicago and London, 1974), pp. 1:75–76.

18.
Quran 29:46.

19.
Michael Bonner,
Jihad in Islamic History
(Princeton, NJ, and Oxford, 2006), p. 193.

20.
Martin Lings,
Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources
(London, 1983), pp. 247–55; Tor Andrae,
Muhammad: The Man and His Faith,
trans. Theophil Menzel (London, 1936), pp. 215–15; Watt,
Muhammad at Medina,
pp. 46–59; Bamyeh,
Social Origins of Islam,
pp. 222–27.

21.
Quran 48:26, cited in Izutsu,
Ethico-Religious Concepts,
p. 31.

22.
Ibn Ishaq,
Sirat Rasul Allah,
751, cited in Guillaume,
Life of Muhammad.
Cf. Quran 110.

23.
Paul L. Heck, “
Jihad
Revisited,”
Journal of Religious Ethics
32, no.1 (2004); Bonner,
Jihad in Islamic History,
pp. 21–22.

24.
Bonner,
Jihad in Islamic History,
p. 25; Reuven Firestone,
Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam
(Oxford and New York, 1999), pp. 42–45.

25.
Quran 16:135–28.

26.
Quran 22:39–41, 2:194, 2:197.

27.
Quran 9:5.

28.
Quran 8:61.

29.
Quran 9:29.

30.
Firestone,
Jihad,
pp. 49–50.

31.
Quran 15:94–95, 16:135.

32.
Quran 2:190, 22:39–45.

33.
Quran 2:191, 2:217.

34.
Quran 2:191, 9:5, 9:29.

35.
Firestone,
Jihad,
pp. 50–65.

36.
Quran 2:216, Asad translation.

37.
Quran 9:38–39, in
The Qur’an: A New Translation,
trans. M. A. S. Abdel Haleem (Oxford, 2004).

38.
Quran 9:43, ibid.

39.
Quran 9:73–74, 63:1–3.

40.
Quran 2:109, Abdel Haleem translation; cf. 50:59.

41.
Quran 5:16, ibid.

42.
Firestone,
Jihad,
pp. 73, 157.

43.
Quran 9:5, Abdel Haleem translation.

44.
Quran 2:193, in Firestone,
Jihad,
p. 85.

45.
Garth Fowden,
Empire to Commonwealth: Consequences of Monotheism in Late Antiquity
(Princeton, NJ, 1993), pp. 140–42.

46.
John Keegan,
A History of Warfare
(London and New York, 1993), pp. 195–96.

47.
Peter Brown,
The World of Late Antiquity, AD 150–750
(London, 1989), p. 193.

48.
Hadith reported by Muthir al Ghiram, Shams ad-Din Suyuti, and al Walid ibn Muslim, cited in Guy Le Strange,
Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from AD 650 to 1500 (London, 1890), pp. 139–43; Tabari, Tarikh ar-Rasul wa’l Muluk,
1:2405; Moshe Gil,
A History of Palestine, 634–1099
, trans. Ethel Broido (Cambridge, UK, 1992), pp. 70–72, 143–48, 636–38.

49.
“Book of Commandments,” quoted in Gil,
History of Palestine,
p. 71.

50.
Michael the Syrian,
History
3.226, quoted in Joshua Prawer,
The Latin Kingdom in Jerusalem: European Colonialism in the Middle Ages
(London, 1972), p. 216.

51.
Peter Brown,
The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity, AD 200–1000
(Oxford and Malden, MA, 1996), p. 185; Bonner,
Jihad in Islamic History,
p. 56.

52.
Bonner,
Jihad in Islamic History,
pp. 64–89; 168–69.

53.
David Cook,
Understanding Jihad
(Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 2005), pp. 22–24.

54.
Ibid., pp. 13–19; Bonner,
Jihad in Islamic History,
pp. 46–54; Firestone,
Jihad,
pp. 93–99.

55.
Jan Wensinck,
Concordance et indices de la tradition musulmane,
5 vols. (Leiden, 1992), 1:994, 5:298.

56.
Al-Hindi,
Kanz
(Beirut, 1989), 4:P:282 n. 10,500; Cook,
Understanding Jihad,
p. 18.

57.
Ibn Abi Asim,
Jihad
(Medina, 1986), 1:140–41 n. 11.

58.
Wensinck,
Concordance,
p. 2:212; Suliman Bashear, “Apocalyptic and Other Materials on Early Muslim—Byzantine Wars,”
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,
ser. 3, vol. 1, no. 2 (1991).

59.
Wensinck,
Concordance,
p. 4:344; Bonner,
Jihad in Islamic History,
p. 51.

60.
Wensinck,
Concordance,
2:312.

61.
Cook,
Understanding Jihad,
pp. 23–25.

62.
Ibn al-Mubarak,
Kitab al-Jihad
(Beirut, 1971), pp. 89–90 n. 105; Cook,
Understanding Jihad,
p. 23.

63.
Abu Daud,
Sunan
III, p. 4 n. 2484, in Cook,
Understanding Jihad.

64.
Quran 3:157, 3:167.

65.
Muhammad b. Isa al-Tirmidhi,
Al-jami al-sahih,
ed. Abd al-Wahhab Abd al-Latif, 5 vols. (Beirut, n.d), 3:106, cited in David Cook, “Jihad and Martyrdom in Islamic History,” in Andrew R. Murphy, ed.,
The Blackwell Companion to Religion and Violence
(Chichester, UK, 2011), pp. 283–84.

66.
Ibn al-Mubarak,
Jihad,
pp. 63–64 n. 64, cited in Cook,
Understanding Jihad,
p. 26.

67.
Bonner,
Jihad in
Islamic History,
pp. 119–20.

68.
Ibid., pp. 125–26; Hodgson,
Venture of Islam,
1:216; John L. Esposito,
Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam
(Oxford, 2002), pp. 41–42.

69.
Al-Azmeh,
Muslim Kingship,
pp. 68–69. The
Umayyads learned this lore from the
Lakhmid
Arab dynasty, who had been clients of
Persia. Timothy H. Parsons,
The Rule of Empires: Those Who Built Them, Those Who Endured Them, and Why They Always Fail
(Oxford, 2010), pp. 79–80.

70.
Brown,
World of Late Antiquity,
pp. 201–2.

71.
Michael Bonner,
Aristocratic Violence and Holy War: Studies in the Jihad and the Arab-Byzantine Frontier
(New Haven, CT, 1996), pp. 99–106.

72.
Abu Nuwas,
Diwan,
452, 641, cited in Bonner,
Jihad in Islamic History,
p. 129.

73.
Ibid., pp. 127–31.

74.
Ibid., pp. 99–110.

75.
Peter Partner,
God of Battles: Holy Wars of Christianity and Islam
(London, 1997), p. 51.

76.
Ibn al-Mubarak,
Jihad,
p. 143 n. 141; Al Bayhagi,
Zuhd
(Beirut, n.d.), p. 165 n. 273, cited in Cook,
Understanding Jihad,
p. 35.

77.
Parsons,
Rule of Empires,
p. 77; Bonner,
Jihad in Islamic History,
p. 89; Hodgson,
Venture of Islam,
1:305.

78.
Al-Azmeh,
Muslim Kingship,
p. 239; Hodgson,
Venture of Islam,
pp. 444–45.

79.
Hodgson,
Venture of Islam,
pp. 315–54.

80.
Ibid., p. 317; Bonner,
Jihad in Islamic History,
pp. 92–93; Cook,
Understanding Jihad,
p. 21.

81.
Hodgson,
Venture of Islam,
p. 323.

82.
Sunni Muslims form the majority, basing their lives on the
sunnah,
or “customary practice,” of the Prophet.

83.
It was called the
Fatimid Empire because, like all
Shiis,
Ismails revere
Fatima, the Prophet’s daughter, the wife of Ali, and the mother of
Husain.

84.
Bernard Lewis,
The Assassins
(London, 1967); Edwin Burman,
The Assassins: Holy Killers of Islam
(London, 1987).

1.
H. E. J. Cowdrey, “Pope Gregory VII’s ‘Crusading’ Plans of 1074,” in B. Z. Kedar, H. E. Mayer, and R. C. Smail, eds.,
Outremer
(Jerusalem, 1982).

2.
Jonathan Riley-Smith,
The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading
(London, 1986), pp. 17–22.

3.
Joseph R. Strager, “Feudalism in Western Europe,” in Rushton Coulborn, ed.,
Feudalism in History
(Hamden, CT, 1965), p. 21; Michael Gaddis,
There Is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ: Religious Violence in the Christian Roman Empire
(Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 2005), pp. 334–35; John Keegan,
A History of Warfare
(London and New York, 1993), pp. 283, 289.

4.
Peter Brown,
The World of Late Antiquity, AD 150–750
(London, 1989), p. 134.

5.
J. M. Wallace-Hadrill,
The Frankish Church
(Oxford, 1983), pp. 187, 245.

6.
Peter Brown,
The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity, AD 200–1000
(Oxford and Malden, MA, 1996), pp. 254–57.

7.
Ibid., pp. 276–302.

8.
Einard, “Life of Charlemagne,” in
Two Lives of Charlemagne,
trans. Lewis Thorpe (Harmondsworth, UK, 1969), p. 67.

9.
Karl F. Morrison,
Tradition and Authority in the Western Church, 300–1140
(Princeton, NJ, 1969), p. 378.

10.
Rosamund McKitterick,
The Frankish Kingdoms Under the Carolingians, 751–987
(London and New York, 1983), p. 62.

11.
Brown,
World of Late Antiquity,
pp. 134–35.

12.
Alcuin, Letter 174, cited in R. W. Southern,
Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages
(New York, 1990), p. 2:32.

13.
This letter was actually written for him by Alcuin. Epistle 93 in Wallace-Hadrill,
Frankish Church,
p. 186.

14.
Brown,
Rise of Western Christendom,
p. 281.

15.
Talal Asad, “On Discipline and Humility in Medieval Christian Monasticism,” in
Genealogies of Religion, Discipline and Reasons of Power in Christianity and Islam
(Baltimore and London, 1993), p. 148.

16.
Ibid., pp. 130–34.

17.
Southern,
Western Society and the Church,
pp. 217–24.

18.
Georges Duby, “The Origins of a System of Social Classification,” in Duby,
The Chivalrous Society,
trans. Cynthia Postan (London, 1977), p. 91.

19.
Georges Duby, “The Origins of Knighthood,” in
The Chivalrous Society,
p. 165.

20.
Foundation Charter of King Edgar for New Minster, Winchester, in Southern,
Western Society and the Church,
pp., 224–25.

21.
Ordericus Vitalis,
Historia Ecclesiastica,
in Southern,
Western Society and the Church,
p. 225.

22.
Brown,
Rise of Western Christendom,
p. 301.