Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes; Fourth Edition (83 page)

For the Crusades: Jonathan Riley-Smith,
What Were the Crusades?
, London 1992, with bibliography, and the same author’s
The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading
, London 1986; C. Erdmann,
The Origin of the Idea of Crusade
, Princeton, New Jersey 1977 (classic discussion); H. E. Mayer,
London 1972; S. Runciman,
The Crusades
, London 1972; S. Runciman,
A History of the Crusades
, Cambridge 1951– 4 (3 volumes); Robinson,
Papacy
chapter 9 is also important.

For Hadrian IV: E. M. Almedingen,
The English Pope:Adrian IV
, London 1925; W. Ullmann, ‘The Pontificate of Adrian IV’,
Cambridge Historical Journal
11 (1953–5), pp. 232–52; R. W. Southern,
Medieval Humanism and Other Studies
, Oxford 1970, pp. 234–52, and especially the essays and documents brought together by Brenda Bolton and Anne J. Duggan,
Adrian IV: The English Pope (1154–1159)
, Brookfield, Vermont 2002. My discussion of the papacy, the Normans and Ireland is based on F. X. Martin, ‘Diarmuid Mac Murchada and the Coming of the Anglonormans’ in A. Cosgrave (ed.),
A New History of Ireland Volume 2: Medieval Ireland 1169–1534
, Oxford 1987, pp. 43–66. The standard life of Barbarossa in English is by P. Munz,
Frederick Barbarossa
, London 1969, although his reading of Barbarossa’s policy is widely rejected.

On the twelfth and thirteenth-century papacy in general: K. Pennington,
Pope and Bishops: The Papal Monarchy in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries
, Philadelphia 1984; Agostino Paravicini Bagliani,
Il Trono di Pietro: l’Universitalità del papato da Allesandro III a Bonifacio VIII
, Rome 1996. R. Brentano,
Rome before Avignon
, London 1974, is unfailingly fresh and challenging. On Innocent III, the fullest medieval memoir has been translated by James M. Powell,
The Deeds of Pope Innocent III, by an Anonymous Author
, Washington 2004; the standard modern life is by H. Tillmann,
Pope Innocent III
, Amsterdam 1980; briefer study with useful bibliographies by J. Sayers,
Innocent III: Leader of Europe 1198–1216
, London 1994. There is a selection of essays and issues in James L. Powell (ed.),
Innocent III: Vicar of Christ or Lord of the World?
, Washington 1994; also see C. R. Cheney,
Pope Innocent III and England
, Stuttgart 1976, D. P. Waley,
The Papal State in the Thirteenth Century
, London 1961.

On repression of heresy: R. I. Moore,
The Origins of European Dissent
, London 1977; B. Bolton, ‘Innocent III’s treatment of the Humiliati’, in D. Baker (ed.),
Studies in Church HistoryVolume 8
, Oxford 1971, pp. 73–82; J. R. Strayer,
The Albigensian Crusades
, New York 1971; B. Hamilton,
The Medieval Inquisition
, London 1981(for later developments); E. A. Synan,
The Popes and the Jews in the Middle Ages
, New York 1965. On the Fourth Crusade see D. E. Queller,
The Fourth Crusade:The Conquest of Constantinople
, Leicester 1978, and J. Godfrey,
1204: the Unholy Crusade
, Oxford 1980. Byzantine/Roman relations more generally are treated in J. Gill,
Byzantium and the Papacy 1198–1400
, New Jersey 1979; theological study
from a sympathetic Roman point of view can be found in Aidan Nichols,
Rome and the Eastern Churches, A Study in Schism
, Edinburgh 1992. On the friars: R. M. Brooke,
The Coming of the Friars
, London 1975; C. H. Lawrence,
The Friars
, London 1994.

For Frederick II and the papacy: T. C. Van Cleve,
The Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen
, Oxford 1972; D. Abulafia,
Frederick II: a Medieval Emperor
, London 1988. For papal provisions, G. Barraclough,
Papal Provisions
, London 1935 (throwing light on papal government and authority more generally). Papal finance is illustrated by the collection of documents with commentary by W. E. Lunt,
Papal Revenues in the Middle Ages
, New York 1934 (2 volumes). For a fascinating account of an incident illuminating the role of the papacy in thirteenth-century Italian politics, see S. Runciman,
The Sicilian Vespers
, Cambridge 1958.

The unfortunate Celestine V has found a splendid biographer in Paolo Golinelli,
Il Papa Contadino: Celestino V e il Suo Tempo
, Florence 1996. For Boniface VIII, see T. S. R. Boase,
Boniface VIII
, London 1933; F. M. Powicke, ‘Pope Boniface VIII’,
History
18 (1934) pp. 307– 29; C. T. Wood,
Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII
, London 1971. The French dossier of accusations against Boniface VIII has been edited, explored and (mostly) dismissed in Jean Coste (ed.),
Boniface VIII en Procès: Articles d’Accusation et Dépositions des Témoins (1303–11)
, Rome 1995. For the Jubilee, see H. Thurston,
The Holy Year of Jubilee: An Account of the History and Ceremonial of the Roman Jubilee
, London 1900, which has relevance for subsequent chapters also. H. L. Kessler and J. Zacharias,
Rome 1300: On the Path of the Pilgrim
, New Haven and London 2000, offers an imaginative and beautifully illustrated evocation of the city during the first Jubilee. Apocalyptic hopes and fears centred on the papacy are explored in Part 4 of Marjorie Reeves,
The Influence of Prophecy in the Later Middle Ages: A Study in Joachimism
, Oxford 1979.

The artistic and architectural setting of the papacy of the high Middle Ages is discussed in Krautheimer,
Rome
, chapter 8; John White,
Art and Architecture in Italy 1250–1400
, New Haven and London 1993, chapters 4, 7 and 10; P. Hetherington,
Pietro Cavallini: A Study in the Art of Late Medieval Rome
, London 1979; W. Oakeshott,
The Mosaics of Rome
, London 1967; E. Hutton,
The Cosmati:The Roman Marble Workers of the XIIth and XIIIth Centuries
, London 1950.

On the Avignon papacy: B. Guillemain,
Le Cour Pontificale d’Avignon, 1309–1376
, Paris 1962; G. Mollat,
The Popes at Avignon 1305–1378
, Edinburgh 1963; Y. Renouard,
The Avignon Papacy 1305–1403
, Hamden, Connecticut
1970. The first Avignon pope is subjected to close scrutiny in Sophia Menache,
Clement V
, Cambridge 1998. Patrick Nold’s
Pope John XXII and his Franciscan Cardinal
, New York and Oxford 2003, explores the complexities of the poverty issue and its impact on the papacy. An invaluable sidelight on the papacy of the Avignon period is thrown by J. Gardner,
The Tomb and the Tiara: Curial Sculpture in Rome and Avignon in the Later Middle Ages
, Oxford 1992.

On the Great Schism and the Conciliar Movement: W. Ullmann,
The Origins of the Great Schism
, London 1948; J. H. Smith,
The Great Schism, 1378
, London 1970; B. Tierney,
Foundations of the Conciliar Theory
, Cambridge 1955; E. F. Jacob,
Essays in the Conciliar Epoch
, Manchester 1963; the first volume of H. Jedin,
A History of the Council of Trent
, London 1949; J. Gill,
The Council of Florence
, Cambridge 1959; G. Alberigo (ed.),
Christian Unity: The Council of Ferrara/Florence 1438–9
, Leuven 1991; Francis Oakley’s,
The Conciliarist Tradition: Constitutionalism in the Catholic Church, 1300–1870
, Oxford 2003, traces the afterlife of these Conciliar debates in the subsequent history of church and papacy. The best general text-book on the Church in the period is E. Delaruelle, E. R. Laband and P. Ourliac,
L’Eglise au temps du Grand Schisme et la Crise Conciliaire
, Paris 1952–5; there is a shorter but still excellent survey in English by Francis Oakley,
The Western Church in the Later Middle Ages
, Cornell 1979. Documents in C. M. D. Crowder,
Unity, Heresy and Reform 1378– 1460: the Conciliar Response to the Great Schism
, London 1977. For Italy and the Papal State: Partner,
Lands of St Peter
, and the same author’s
The Papal State under Martin V
, London 1958; excellent discussion of the impact of the schism on the papacy and the Italian church in D. Hay,
The Church in Italy in the Fifteenth Century
, Cambridge 1977, pp. 26–48.

CHAPTER FOUR: PROTEST AND DIVISION

The Renaissance has generated an immense literature of its own, which cannot even be touched on here. J. Hale,
The Civilization of Europe in the Renaissance
, London 1993, is a good introduction. The Italian background is sketched in D. Hay and J. Law,
Italy in the Age of the Renaissance 1380–1530
, London 1989. The religious history of the period is covered in all the standard histories (see General section above), in Oakley,
The Western Church in the Later Middle Ages
, and in Hay,
The Church in Italy in the Fifteenth Century.
John Bossy’s
Christianity in the West 1400–1700
, Oxarchitecture
of the period are comprehensively surveyed in F. Hartt,
History of Italian Renaissance Art
, London 1987.

The fundamental quarry for any account of the papacy from the fifteenth to the late eighteenth centuries is L. Pastor,
History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages
, London 1912–1952 (40 volumes). Pastor was an ultramontane Austrian Catholic who wrote from a strongly papalist point of view, but his immense and detailed work is based on profound acquaintance with the sources. It is the starting-place for any study of the Catholic Church in the period, and in most cases Pastor’s biographies of individual popes remain the most thorough treatment available.

Survey of the institutions and activities of the Renaissance popes in J. A. F. Thomson,
Popes and Princes, 1417–1517: Politics and Policy in the Late Medieval Church
, London 1980; further exploration of the political dimension in P. Prodi,
The Papal Prince
, Cambridge 1987 and K. P. Lowe,
Church and Politics in Renaissance Italy
, Cambridge 1993.

For Rome on the eve of the Renaissance, P. Partner,
Renaissance Rome 1500–1559: a Portrait of a Society
, Berkeley 1976; Loren Partridge,
The Renaissance in Rome 1400–1600
, London 1996, sketches the art and architectural patronage.

On Nicholas V and the re-planning of Rome: C. W. Westfall,
In this most Perfect Paradise:Alberti, Nicholas V and the Invention of Conscious Urban Planning in Rome 1447–55
, Pennsylvania 1974; P. A. Ramsey (ed.),
Rome in the Renaissance, the City and the Myth
, Binghampton, New York 1982. On Bernardino of Sienna: Iris Origo,
The World of San Bernardino
, London 1963.

On the Renaissance and the papal court more generally: C. L. Stinger,
The Renaissance in Rome
, Bloomington, Indiana 1985; J. F. D’Amico,
Renaissance Humanism in Papal Rome: Humanists and Churchmen on the Eve of the Reformation
, Baltimore and London 1983; E. Lee,
Sixtus IV and Men of Letters
, Rome 1978; A. Grafton (ed.),
Rome Reborn:The Vatican Library and Renaissance Culture
, New Haven and London 1993; J. W. O’Malley,
Praise and Blame in Renaissance Rome: Rhetoric, Doctrine and Reform in the Sacred Orators of the Papal Court 1450–1521
, Durham, NC 1979.

On the Sistine Chapel: C. Pietrangeli et al,
The Sistine Chapel:The Art, the History and the Restoration
, New York 1986 and Pietrangeli is also the editor of the lavishly illustrated
Paintings in the Vatican
, Boston, New York, Toronto and London 1996; L. D. Ettlinger,
The Sistine Chapel before Michelangelo: Religious Imagery and Papal Primacy
, Oxford 1965; C. F. Lewine,
The Sistine Chapel Walls and the Roman Liturgy
, Pennsylvania 1993.

On Pius II the old work by C. M. Ady,
Pius II
, London 1913, remains useful; his entertaining autobiographical
Commentaries
were translated in an abridged form by F. A. Gragg,
Memoirs of a Renaissance Pope:The Commentaries of Pius II
, London 1960. The aspirations of another of the renaissance popes to appear as the renovators of the city and see of Rome are explored in Jill E. Blondin, ‘Power Made Visible: Pope Sixtus IV as Urbis Restaurator in Quattrocento Rome’,
Catholic Historical Review
CXI (2005), pp. 1– 25. For Julius II there are two good modern lives: C. Shaw,
Julius II, the Warrior Pop
e, Oxford 1988, and I. Cloulas,
Jules II
, Paris 1990; for Callistus III and Alexander VI, see M. Mallet,
The Borgia
s, London 1969.

On the papacy and Crusade: N. Housley,
The Later Crusades 1274–1580
, Oxford 1992; C. A. Frazee,
Catholics and Sultans:The Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453–1923
, Cambridge 1983.

On the Renaissance cardinalate and the Curia: P. Partner,
The Pope’s Men:The Papal Civil Service in the Renaissance
, Oxford 1990; Lowe,
Church and Politics
, pp. 46–52; A. V. Antonovics, ‘Counter-Reformation Cardinals 1534–1590’
European Studies Review
2 (1970), pp. 301– 27; D. S. Chambers,
Cardinal Bainbridge in the Court of Rome 1509–1514
, Oxford 1965, and the same writer’s ‘The Economic Predicament of Renaissance Cardinals’,
Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History
3 (1966); B. M. Hallman,
Italian Cardinals, Reform, and the Church as Property
, Berkeley 1985.

For papal finance: J. Delumeau,
Vie Economique et Sociale de Rome dans la Seconde Moitié du XVIe Siècle
, Paris 1957– 9 (2 volumes); some of Delumeau’s conclusions are summarized in his article ‘Rome: Political and Administrative Centralization in the Papal State in the Sixteenth Century’ in E. Cochrane (ed.),
The Late Italian Reniassance 1525–1630
, New York 1970, pp. 287– 304; F. Gilbert,
The Pope, his Banker and Venice
, Cambridge, Massachusetts 1980, deals with the funding of Julius II’s pontificate. The most important recent contribution to understanding of the economics of the early-modern papacy is P. Partner, ‘Papal Financial Policy in the Renaissance and Counter-Reformation’,
Past and Present
(1980), pp. 17–60.