The Great Arab Conquests (69 page)
Read The Great Arab Conquests Online
Authors: Hugh Kennedy
2. THE CONQUEST OF SYRIA AND PALESTINE
1
A. Cameron, ‘Cyprus at the time of the Arab conquests’,
Cyprus Historical Review
1 (1992): 27-49, reprinted in
eadem
,
Changing Cultures in Early Byzantium
(Aldershot, 1996), VI.
A. Cameron, ‘Cyprus at the time of the Arab conquests’,
Cyprus Historical Review
1 (1992): 27-49, reprinted in
eadem
,
Changing Cultures in Early Byzantium
(Aldershot, 1996), VI.
2
Balādhurī,
Futūh al-Buldan
, ed. M. J. de Goeje (Leiden, 1866, repr. Leiden, 1968), p. 129.
Balādhurī,
Futūh al-Buldan
, ed. M. J. de Goeje (Leiden, 1866, repr. Leiden, 1968), p. 129.
3
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2156.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2156.
4
Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, p. 119.
Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, p. 119.
5
For this chronology, based on
The Chronicle of 724
see Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, p. 126; Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 109.
For this chronology, based on
The Chronicle of 724
see Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, p. 126; Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 109.
6
‘Doctrina Jacobi Nuper Baptizati’, ed. with French trans. V. Déroche in
Travaux et Mémoires (
Collège de France, Centre de recherche d’histoire et civilisation de Byzance) 11 (1991): 47-273, cap. V, 16 (pp. 208-9).
‘Doctrina Jacobi Nuper Baptizati’, ed. with French trans. V. Déroche in
Travaux et Mémoires (
Collège de France, Centre de recherche d’histoire et civilisation de Byzance) 11 (1991): 47-273, cap. V, 16 (pp. 208-9).
7
See N. M. El Cheikh,
Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs
(Cambridge, MA, 2004), pp. 39-54.
See N. M. El Cheikh,
Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs
(Cambridge, MA, 2004), pp. 39-54.
8
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 1561-2.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 1561-2.
9
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2108-25, Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 110-12; Ibn Ath
c
am al-Kūfī,
Kitab al-Futūh
, ed. S. A. Bukhari, 7 vols. (Hyderabad, 1974), vol. I, pp. 132-42; al-Ya‘qūbī,
Ta’rīkh
, ed. M. Houtsma, 2 vols. (Leiden, 1883), vol. II, pp. 133-4.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2108-25, Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 110-12; Ibn Ath
c
am al-Kūfī,
Kitab al-Futūh
, ed. S. A. Bukhari, 7 vols. (Hyderabad, 1974), vol. I, pp. 132-42; al-Ya‘qūbī,
Ta’rīkh
, ed. M. Houtsma, 2 vols. (Leiden, 1883), vol. II, pp. 133-4.
10
See Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, pp. 119-27 for the best discussion.
See Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, pp. 119-27 for the best discussion.
11
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2113-14.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2113-14.
12
P. Crone, ‘Khālid b. al-Walīd’,
Encyclopaedia of Islam
, 2nd edn.
P. Crone, ‘Khālid b. al-Walīd’,
Encyclopaedia of Islam
, 2nd edn.
13
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2097, 2114-15; Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 112.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2097, 2114-15; Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 112.
14
This account is based on the chronology worked out by Ibn Ishāq and al-Wāqidi, two important eighth-century authorities, and described in Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, pp. 128-34. For alternative chronologies, see ibid., pp. 134-9 (Sayf b. Umar) and pp. 139-420.
This account is based on the chronology worked out by Ibn Ishāq and al-Wāqidi, two important eighth-century authorities, and described in Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, pp. 128-34. For alternative chronologies, see ibid., pp. 134-9 (Sayf b. Umar) and pp. 139-420.
15
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2398-401.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2398-401.
16
Fredegar,
The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its Continuations
, trans. J. M. Wallace-Hadrill (London, 1960), p. 55.
Fredegar,
The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its Continuations
, trans. J. M. Wallace-Hadrill (London, 1960), p. 55.
17
Sebeos,
The Armenian History
, trans. R. W. Thomson, with notes by J. Howard-Johnston and T. Greenwood, 2 vols. (Liverpool, 1999), I, p. 97.
Sebeos,
The Armenian History
, trans. R. W. Thomson, with notes by J. Howard-Johnston and T. Greenwood, 2 vols. (Liverpool, 1999), I, p. 97.
18
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2145-6, 2157.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2145-6, 2157.
19
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2152.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2152.
20
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 121.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 121.
21
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2154.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2154.
22
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2393.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2393.
23
See, for example, Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2099.
See, for example, Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2099.
24
W. E. Kaegi,
Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests
(Cambridge, 1992), p. 127.
W. E. Kaegi,
Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests
(Cambridge, 1992), p. 127.
25
Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, p. 133. Kaegi,
Byzantium
, p. 121, has the climax of the battle on 20 August without citing any sources.
Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, p. 133. Kaegi,
Byzantium
, p. 121, has the climax of the battle on 20 August without citing any sources.
26
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2091.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2091.
27
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2091-2.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2091-2.
28
See L. Caetani,
Annali dell’Islam
(Milan, 1905-26), III, pp. 491-613, and the discussion in Kaegi,
Byzantium
, pp. 122-3, esp. n. 23.
See L. Caetani,
Annali dell’Islam
(Milan, 1905-26), III, pp. 491-613, and the discussion in Kaegi,
Byzantium
, pp. 122-3, esp. n. 23.
29
The account that follows is based on Kaegi,
Byzantium
, pp. 119-22 and the map on p. 113.
The account that follows is based on Kaegi,
Byzantium
, pp. 119-22 and the map on p. 113.
30
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2099.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2099.
31
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2092.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2092.
32
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2100.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2100.
33
Fredegar,
Chronicle
, p. 55.
Fredegar,
Chronicle
, p. 55.
34
Quoted in Kaegi,
Byzantium
, p. 141.
Quoted in Kaegi,
Byzantium
, p. 141.
35
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2390-93; Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 130-31 for the fall of Homs.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2390-93; Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 130-31 for the fall of Homs.
36
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 131.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 131.
37
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 131 and āqūt,
Mu
c
jam al-Buldn
, ed. F. Wüstenfeld (Leipzig, 1886), ‘Homs’.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 131 and āqūt,
Mu
c
jam al-Buldn
, ed. F. Wüstenfeld (Leipzig, 1886), ‘Homs’.
38
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2393-5.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2393-5.
39
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 139-40.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 139-40.
40
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2396.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2396.
41
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 137.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 137.
42
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2396
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2396
43
Michael the Syrian,
Chronicle
, ed. with French trans. J.-B. Chabot, 4 vols. (Paris, 1899-1924), II, p. 424.
Michael the Syrian,
Chronicle
, ed. with French trans. J.-B. Chabot, 4 vols. (Paris, 1899-1924), II, p. 424.
44
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 131:
muqallisīn
,
‘
a mime, a mummer, one who beats the Arabian drum (
daf
) and meets or goes before kings and other great men with that and other musical instruments on triumphal occasions’.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 131:
muqallisīn
,
‘
a mime, a mummer, one who beats the Arabian drum (
daf
) and meets or goes before kings and other great men with that and other musical instruments on triumphal occasions’.
45
Ancient Adhri
c
āt; Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 13 9.
Ancient Adhri
c
āt; Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 13 9.
46
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 142.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 142.
47
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 132-3.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 132-3.
48
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 127.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 127.
49
For the map, see H. Donner,
The Mosaic Map of Madaba: An introductory guide
(Kampen, 1992).
For the map, see H. Donner,
The Mosaic Map of Madaba: An introductory guide
(Kampen, 1992).
50
Translated in R. Hoyland,
Seeing Islam as Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam
(Princeton, NJ, 1997), pp. 72-3.
Translated in R. Hoyland,
Seeing Islam as Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam
(Princeton, NJ, 1997), pp. 72-3.
51
Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, pp. 151-2.
Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, pp. 151-2.
52
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2405-6.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2405-6.
53
Sa
c
īd ibn Batrīq,
Das Annalenwerk des Eutychios von Alexandrien
, ed. M. Breydy in
Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium
, vol. 471 Scriptores Arabici, t. 44 (Leuven, 1985); see also R. L. Wilken,
The Land Called Holy: Palestine in Christian History and Thought
(New Haven, CT, 1992), pp. 233-9.
Sa
c
īd ibn Batrīq,
Das Annalenwerk des Eutychios von Alexandrien
, ed. M. Breydy in
Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium
, vol. 471 Scriptores Arabici, t. 44 (Leuven, 1985); see also R. L. Wilken,
The Land Called Holy: Palestine in Christian History and Thought
(New Haven, CT, 1992), pp. 233-9.
54
C. F. Robinson,
Empire and Elites after the Muslim Conquest: The Transformation of Northern Mesopotamia
(Cambridge, 2000), p. 34.
C. F. Robinson,
Empire and Elites after the Muslim Conquest: The Transformation of Northern Mesopotamia
(Cambridge, 2000), p. 34.
55
On the sources for the conquest and the problems they raise, see Robinson,
Empire and Elites
, pp. 1-32.
On the sources for the conquest and the problems they raise, see Robinson,
Empire and Elites
, pp. 1-32.
56
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 172-3.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 172-3.
57
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 176.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 176.
58
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 123.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 123.
59
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 126.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 126.
60
For the documents, see C. J. Kraemer, Jr,
Excavations at Nessana
, vol. 3:
Non-Literary Papyri
(Princeton, NJ, 1958), pp. 175-97.
For the documents, see C. J. Kraemer, Jr,
Excavations at Nessana
, vol. 3:
Non-Literary Papyri
(Princeton, NJ, 1958), pp. 175-97.
3. THE CONQUEST OF IRAQ
1
For a general history of the Sasanian Empire, see A. Christensen,
L’Iran sous les Sassanides
(rev. 2nd edn, Copenhagen, 1944);
Cambridge History of Iran
, vol. III:
The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods
, ed. E. Yarshater (Cambridge, 1983); M. Morony, ‘Sāsānids’, in
Encylopaedia of Islam
, 2nd edn, with full bibliography; Z. Rubin,’The Sasanian Monarchy’, in
Cambridge Ancient History
, vol. XIV:
Late Antiquity: Empire and successors, A.D. 425-600
, ed. A. Cameron, B. Ward-Perkins and M. Whitby (Cambridge, 2000), pp. 638-61; for Iraq under Sasanian rule, see M. Morony,
Iraq after the Muslim Conquest
(Princeton, NJ, 1984).
For a general history of the Sasanian Empire, see A. Christensen,
L’Iran sous les Sassanides
(rev. 2nd edn, Copenhagen, 1944);
Cambridge History of Iran
, vol. III:
The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods
, ed. E. Yarshater (Cambridge, 1983); M. Morony, ‘Sāsānids’, in
Encylopaedia of Islam
, 2nd edn, with full bibliography; Z. Rubin,’The Sasanian Monarchy’, in
Cambridge Ancient History
, vol. XIV:
Late Antiquity: Empire and successors, A.D. 425-600
, ed. A. Cameron, B. Ward-Perkins and M. Whitby (Cambridge, 2000), pp. 638-61; for Iraq under Sasanian rule, see M. Morony,
Iraq after the Muslim Conquest
(Princeton, NJ, 1984).
2
For Zoroastrians in Iraq, see Morony,
Iraq
, pp. 281-300.
For Zoroastrians in Iraq, see Morony,
Iraq
, pp. 281-300.
3
For Christians and Jews, see ibid., pp. 306-42.
For Christians and Jews, see ibid., pp. 306-42.
4
On the history of agriculture and settlement in central Iraq, see R. McC. Adams,
The Land behind Baghdad: A history of settlement on the Diyala Plain
(Chicago, IL, 1965).
On the history of agriculture and settlement in central Iraq, see R. McC. Adams,
The Land behind Baghdad: A history of settlement on the Diyala Plain
(Chicago, IL, 1965).
5
Morony,
Iraq
, pp. 185-90.
Morony,
Iraq
, pp. 185-90.
6
On the Aramaens, see ibid., pp. 169-80.
On the Aramaens, see ibid., pp. 169-80.
7
Maurice’s Strategikon: handbook of Byzantine military strategy
, trans. G. T. Dennis (Philadelphia, PA, 1984), pp. 113-15.
Maurice’s Strategikon: handbook of Byzantine military strategy
, trans. G. T. Dennis (Philadelphia, PA, 1984), pp. 113-15.
8
The following account is based on R. N. Frye, ‘The political history of Iran under the Sasanians’, in
Cambridge History of Iran
, vol. III:
The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods
, ed. E. Yarshater (Cambridge, 1983), pp. 168-71.
The following account is based on R. N. Frye, ‘The political history of Iran under the Sasanians’, in
Cambridge History of Iran
, vol. III:
The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods
, ed. E. Yarshater (Cambridge, 1983), pp. 168-71.
9
Adams,
Land behind Baghdad
, pp. 81-2.
Adams,
Land behind Baghdad
, pp. 81-2.
10
Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, pp. 170-73.
Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, pp. 170-73.
11
Ibid., p. 178. For Khālid’s campaigns in Iraq, see Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 241-50.
Ibid., p. 178. For Khālid’s campaigns in Iraq, see Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 241-50.
12
Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, p. 179.
Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, p. 179.
13
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 242-3.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 242-3.
14
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 243.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 243.
15
The excavations, led by D. Talbot Rice were published as ‘The Oxford excavations at Hira, 1931’,
Antiquity
6.23 (1932): 276-91 and ‘The Oxford excavations at Hira’,
Ars Islamica
1 (1934): 51-74. Sadly there were no further campaigns on the site.
The excavations, led by D. Talbot Rice were published as ‘The Oxford excavations at Hira, 1931’,
Antiquity
6.23 (1932): 276-91 and ‘The Oxford excavations at Hira’,
Ars Islamica
1 (1934): 51-74. Sadly there were no further campaigns on the site.
16
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 244.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 244.
17
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 243.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 243.
18
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 247-8.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 247-8.
19
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2159.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2159.
20
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 251-2.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 251-2.
21
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2178.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2178.
22
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2174-5.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2174-5.
23
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2179.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2179.
24
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 254.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 254.
25
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 255.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 255.
26
Firestone,
jihād: The Origin of Holy War
, p. 106.
Firestone,
jihād: The Origin of Holy War
, p. 106.
27
Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, p. 206.
Donner,
Early Islamic Conquests
, p. 206.
28
Ibid., p. 221.
Ibid., p. 221.
29
Ibid., p. 205.
Ibid., p. 205.
30
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 255-62.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 255-62.
31
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2377.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2377.
32
Sebeos,
The Armenian History
, pp. 98-9, 244-5; Movses of Dasxuranci,
The History of the Caucasian Albanians
, trans. C. J. F. Dowsett (Oxford, 1961), pp. 110-11.
Sebeos,
The Armenian History
, pp. 98-9, 244-5; Movses of Dasxuranci,
The History of the Caucasian Albanians
, trans. C. J. F. Dowsett (Oxford, 1961), pp. 110-11.
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