The Great Arab Conquests (72 page)
Read The Great Arab Conquests Online
Authors: Hugh Kennedy
5
C. J. Wickham,
Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, c. 400-c. 800
(Oxford, 2005), p. 641.
C. J. Wickham,
Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, c. 400-c. 800
(Oxford, 2005), p. 641.
6
Ibid., pp. 709-12, 725.
Ibid., pp. 709-12, 725.
7
A. Leone and D. Mattingly, ‘Landscapes of change in North Africa’, in
Landscapes of Change: Rural evolutions in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages
, ed. N. Christie (Aldershot, 2004), pp. 135-62 at pp. 142-31;
A. Leone and D. Mattingly, ‘Landscapes of change in North Africa’, in
Landscapes of Change: Rural evolutions in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages
, ed. N. Christie (Aldershot, 2004), pp. 135-62 at pp. 142-31;
8
I. Sjöström,
Tripolitania in Transition: Late Roman to Islamic settlement: with a catalogue of sites
(Aldershot, 1993), pp. 81-5.
I. Sjöström,
Tripolitania in Transition: Late Roman to Islamic settlement: with a catalogue of sites
(Aldershot, 1993), pp. 81-5.
9
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 170.
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 170.
10
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 170, details the movement of Berber tribes to the west.
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 170, details the movement of Berber tribes to the west.
11
Sjöström,
Tripolitania
, p. 26.
Sjöström,
Tripolitania
, p. 26.
12
Ibid., p. 40. See also D. Mattingly, ‘The Laguatan: a Libyan tribal confederation in the late Roman Empire’,
Libyan Studies
14 (1983): 96-108; D. Pringle,
The Defence of Byzantine Africa from Justinian to the Arab Conquest
, British Archaeological Reports, International Series 99 (Oxford, 1981).
Ibid., p. 40. See also D. Mattingly, ‘The Laguatan: a Libyan tribal confederation in the late Roman Empire’,
Libyan Studies
14 (1983): 96-108; D. Pringle,
The Defence of Byzantine Africa from Justinian to the Arab Conquest
, British Archaeological Reports, International Series 99 (Oxford, 1981).
13
The chronology here follows Christides,
Byzantine Libya
, pp. 38-9.
The chronology here follows Christides,
Byzantine Libya
, pp. 38-9.
14
Ibid., p. 15.
Ibid., p. 15.
15
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 173.
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 173.
16
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 184; Taha,
Muslim Conquest
, p. 57; Christides,
Byzantine Libya
, pp. 42-3.
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 184; Taha,
Muslim Conquest
, p. 57; Christides,
Byzantine Libya
, pp. 42-3.
17
Taha,
Muslim Conquest
, p. 58.
Taha,
Muslim Conquest
, p. 58.
18
Yāqūt,
Mu
c
jam al-Buldn
.
Yāqūt,
Mu
c
jam al-Buldn
.
19
Maslama b. Mukhallad al-Ansārī.
Maslama b. Mukhallad al-Ansārī.
20
Ibn al-Athīr,
l-Kamil fi’l Ta’rīkh
, ed. C. J. Tornberg, 13 vols. (Leiden, 1867, repr. Beirut, 1982), III, p. 465, where he explicitly says he is basing his account on North African sources (
ahl al-ta’rīkh min al-maghriba
) because they were better informed than Tabarī. Yāqūt,
Mu
c
jam al-Buldn
, IV, pp. 212-13.
Ibn al-Athīr,
l-Kamil fi’l Ta’rīkh
, ed. C. J. Tornberg, 13 vols. (Leiden, 1867, repr. Beirut, 1982), III, p. 465, where he explicitly says he is basing his account on North African sources (
ahl al-ta’rīkh min al-maghriba
) because they were better informed than Tabarī. Yāqūt,
Mu
c
jam al-Buldn
, IV, pp. 212-13.
21
Taha,
Muslim Conquest
, pp. 61-2.
Taha,
Muslim Conquest
, pp. 61-2.
22
Following Taha,
Muslim Conquest
, pp. 63-5, here.
Following Taha,
Muslim Conquest
, pp. 63-5, here.
23
The sources for Uqba’s great expedition are all much later than the events they purport to describe and the fullest account is that of Ibn Idhārī,
c
. 1300. This has led some, like Brunschvig, to doubt the historicity of the whole episode. Levi-Provençal has argued convincingly, however, that the narrative derives from a Maghrebi-Andalusi tradition and should be treated seriously. In support of this, he provides a translation of an account attributed to one Abū
c
Alī Sālih b. Abī Sālih b.
c
Abd al-Halīm, who lived in Naffīs in the High Atlas in about 1300. The edition of the Arabic text, promised by Levi-Provençal in the article, seems to have been aborted by his death in 1954. See E. Levi-Provençal, ‘Un récit de la conquête de l’Afrique du Nord’,
Arabica
1 (1954): 17-43.
The sources for Uqba’s great expedition are all much later than the events they purport to describe and the fullest account is that of Ibn Idhārī,
c
. 1300. This has led some, like Brunschvig, to doubt the historicity of the whole episode. Levi-Provençal has argued convincingly, however, that the narrative derives from a Maghrebi-Andalusi tradition and should be treated seriously. In support of this, he provides a translation of an account attributed to one Abū
c
Alī Sālih b. Abī Sālih b.
c
Abd al-Halīm, who lived in Naffīs in the High Atlas in about 1300. The edition of the Arabic text, promised by Levi-Provençal in the article, seems to have been aborted by his death in 1954. See E. Levi-Provençal, ‘Un récit de la conquête de l’Afrique du Nord’,
Arabica
1 (1954): 17-43.
24
Ibn Idhārī,
Bayn
, II, p. 26.
Ibn Idhārī,
Bayn
, II, p. 26.
25
Wickham,
Framing
, p. 336.
Wickham,
Framing
, p. 336.
26
Ibn Idhārī,
Bayn
, II, pp. 26-7.
Ibn Idhārī,
Bayn
, II, pp. 26-7.
27
Ibn Idhārī,
Bayn
, II, pp. 25-6.
Ibn Idhārī,
Bayn
, II, pp. 25-6.
28
Ibn Idhārī,
Bayn
, II, p. 26.
Ibn Idhārī,
Bayn
, II, p. 26.
29
Ibn Idhārī,
Bayn
, II, p. 27.
Ibn Idhārī,
Bayn
, II, p. 27.
30
Ibn Idhārī,
Bayn
, II, pp. 30-31.
Ibn Idhārī,
Bayn
, II, pp. 30-31.
31
Taha,
Muslim Conquest
, p. 68.
Taha,
Muslim Conquest
, p. 68.
32
Ibn Idhārī,
Bayn
, II, p. 35.
Ibn Idhārī,
Bayn
, II, p. 35.
33
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 200.
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 200.
34
Bakrī,
Description de l’Afrique septentrionale
, ed. Baron de Slane (Algiers, 1857), p. 37.
Bakrī,
Description de l’Afrique septentrionale
, ed. Baron de Slane (Algiers, 1857), p. 37.
35
Gibbon,
Decline and Fall
, III, p. 300.
Gibbon,
Decline and Fall
, III, p. 300.
36
Following the chronology proposed by Talbi in
Encyclopaedia of Islam
, 2nd edn.
Following the chronology proposed by Talbi in
Encyclopaedia of Islam
, 2nd edn.
37
Some accounts ascribe the foundation of Tunis to later governors; see Taha,
Muslim Conquest
, pp. 72-3.
Some accounts ascribe the foundation of Tunis to later governors; see Taha,
Muslim Conquest
, pp. 72-3.
38
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 40.
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 40.
39
Ibn Idhārī,
Bayn
, II, p. 41.
Ibn Idhārī,
Bayn
, II, p. 41.
7. CROSSING THE OXUS
1
The best account of the Muslim conquests of Central Asia remains H. A. R. Gibb,
The Arab Conquests in Central Asia
(London, 1923), on which I have drawn extensively. See also V. Barthold,
Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasions
, trans. H. Gibb (London, 1928, rev edn, Gibb Memorial Series, V, London, 1968), pp. 180-93.
The best account of the Muslim conquests of Central Asia remains H. A. R. Gibb,
The Arab Conquests in Central Asia
(London, 1923), on which I have drawn extensively. See also V. Barthold,
Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasions
, trans. H. Gibb (London, 1928, rev edn, Gibb Memorial Series, V, London, 1968), pp. 180-93.
2
The Fihrist of al-Nadīm
, trans. B. Dodge, 2 vols. (New York, 1970), pp. 220-25. See also the comments in T. Khalidi,
Arabic Historical Thought in the Classical Period
(Cambridge, 1994), pp. 64-5; C. F. Robinson,
Islamic Historiography
(Cambridge, 2003), p. 34.
The Fihrist of al-Nadīm
, trans. B. Dodge, 2 vols. (New York, 1970), pp. 220-25. See also the comments in T. Khalidi,
Arabic Historical Thought in the Classical Period
(Cambridge, 1994), pp. 64-5; C. F. Robinson,
Islamic Historiography
(Cambridge, 2003), p. 34.
3
For this analysis, see Gibb,
Conquests
, pp. 12-13.
For this analysis, see Gibb,
Conquests
, pp. 12-13.
4
For the historical geography of this area, see the classic account in Barthold,
Turkestan
, pp. 64-179.
For the historical geography of this area, see the classic account in Barthold,
Turkestan
, pp. 64-179.
5
For Khwārazm, see the excellent article by C.E. Bosworth, ‘Khwārazm’, in
Encyclopaedia of Islam
, 2nd edn.
For Khwārazm, see the excellent article by C.E. Bosworth, ‘Khwārazm’, in
Encyclopaedia of Islam
, 2nd edn.
6
Ibn Fadlan’s journey to Russia: a tenth-century traveler from Baghdad to the Volga River
, trans. R. Frye (Princeton, NJ, 2005), p. 29.
Ibn Fadlan’s journey to Russia: a tenth-century traveler from Baghdad to the Volga River
, trans. R. Frye (Princeton, NJ, 2005), p. 29.
7
Narshakhī,
History of Bukhara
, trans. R. Frye (Cambridge, MA, 1954), pp. 9-10.
Narshakhī,
History of Bukhara
, trans. R. Frye (Cambridge, MA, 1954), pp. 9-10.
8
E. de la Vaissiere,
Sogdian Traders: A History
(Leiden, 2005), p. 176.
E. de la Vaissiere,
Sogdian Traders: A History
(Leiden, 2005), p. 176.
9
There is a vast literature on the origins and early history of the Turks. For a clear introduction, see D. Sinor, ‘The establishment and dissolution of the Türk empire’, in
Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia
, ed. D. Sinor (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 285-316, with bibliography pp. 478-83.
There is a vast literature on the origins and early history of the Turks. For a clear introduction, see D. Sinor, ‘The establishment and dissolution of the Türk empire’, in
Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia
, ed. D. Sinor (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 285-316, with bibliography pp. 478-83.
10
Trans. Sinor in
Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia
, p. 297.
Trans. Sinor in
Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia
, p. 297.
11
Maurice’s Strategikon: Handbook of Byzantine military strategy
, trans. G. T. Dennis (Philadelphia, PA, 1984), pp. 116-18.
Maurice’s Strategikon: Handbook of Byzantine military strategy
, trans. G. T. Dennis (Philadelphia, PA, 1984), pp. 116-18.
12
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 394. Gibb,
Arab Conquests
, is doubtful that these meetings ever occurred.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 394. Gibb,
Arab Conquests
, is doubtful that these meetings ever occurred.
13
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 412.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 412.
14
Silah b. Ashyam al-
c
Adawī; Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 393.
Silah b. Ashyam al-
c
Adawī; Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 393.
15
Gibb,
Arab Conquests
, pp. 22-3.
Gibb,
Arab Conquests
, pp. 22-3.
16
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 394-5.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 394-5.
17
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 490-97.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 490-97.
18
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 447.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 447.
19
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 594.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 594.
20
Al-Harīsh b. Hilāl al-Quray
c
i.
Al-Harīsh b. Hilāl al-Quray
c
i.
21
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 596.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 596.
22
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 98.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 98.
23
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 696.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 696.
24
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 831-5.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 831-5.
25
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1022.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1022.
26
c
Attb b. Liqwa al-Ghudānī had his debts paid by Bukayr b. Wishāh al-Sa
c
dī; Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1022-3.
c
Attb b. Liqwa al-Ghudānī had his debts paid by Bukayr b. Wishāh al-Sa
c
dī; Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1022-3.
27
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1029.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1029.
28
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1024.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1024.
29
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1024, p. 1031.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1024, p. 1031.
30
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1041; Gibb,
Arab Conquests
, pp. 26-7.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1041; Gibb,
Arab Conquests
, pp. 26-7.
31
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1144, gives Muhammad b. al-Mufaddal (al-Dabbi) (d. 784-5) as a source, but it is not clear whether he is the source for the bulk of the saga. Mufaddal was a philologist from Kūfa who joined the rebellion of Ibrahim the Alid in 762 but was pardoned by Mansūr and taken in to the service of Mahdi. He collected the anthology of pre-Islamic poetry known as the
Mufaddaliyat
but is not recorded as having written any historical works.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1144, gives Muhammad b. al-Mufaddal (al-Dabbi) (d. 784-5) as a source, but it is not clear whether he is the source for the bulk of the saga. Mufaddal was a philologist from Kūfa who joined the rebellion of Ibrahim the Alid in 762 but was pardoned by Mansūr and taken in to the service of Mahdi. He collected the anthology of pre-Islamic poetry known as the
Mufaddaliyat
but is not recorded as having written any historical works.
32
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1147.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1147.
33
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1162-3.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1162-3.
34
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1146-7. The story is reminiscent of the story of the priest-kings of the Lake of Nemi with which James Fraser begins
The Golden Bough
(New York, 1922).
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1146-7. The story is reminiscent of the story of the priest-kings of the Lake of Nemi with which James Fraser begins
The Golden Bough
(New York, 1922).
35
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1147.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1147.
36
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1148-9.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1148-9.
37
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1151.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1151.
38
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1152.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1152.
39
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1080-81.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1080-81.
40
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1153.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1153.
41
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1153.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1153.
42
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1154.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1154.
43
The name is given in the text as Hashūrā or variations on that but it has yet to be identified.
The name is given in the text as Hashūrā or variations on that but it has yet to be identified.
44
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1159-60.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1159-60.
45
Mufaddal b. al-Muhallab b. Abī Sufra; Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1162.
Mufaddal b. al-Muhallab b. Abī Sufra; Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1162.
8. THE ROAD TO SAMARQAND
1
Koran 3: 169.
Koran 3: 169.
2
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1179.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1179.
3
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1290-91.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1290-91.
4
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1185-6.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1185-6.
5
Barthold,
Turkestan
, p. 117.
Barthold,
Turkestan
, p. 117.
6
Narshakhī,
History of Bukhara
, p. 44.
Narshakhī,
History of Bukhara
, p. 44.
7
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1185-90; Narshakhī,
History of Bukhara
, pp. 43-5.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1185-90; Narshakhī,
History of Bukhara
, pp. 43-5.
8
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1188.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1188.
9
Narshakhī,
History of Bukhara
, p. 45 and note B.
Narshakhī,
History of Bukhara
, p. 45 and note B.
10
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1198-9.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, pp. 1198-9.
11
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1202.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, II, p. 1202.
12
Narshakhī,
History of Bukhara
, p. 63.
Narshakhī,
History of Bukhara
, p. 63.
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