The Great Arab Conquests (74 page)
Read The Great Arab Conquests Online
Authors: Hugh Kennedy
46
For recent discussions of the battle and the campaigns that led up to it, see I. Wood,
The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751
(London, 1994), pp. 281-4; P. Fouracre,
The Age of Charles Martel
(London, 2000), pp. 84-8; E. Manzano,
Conquistadores, Emires y Califes: los Omeyas y la formación de al-Andalus
(Barcelona, 2006), pp. 83-4. The military aspects of the battle are discussed in B. Bachrach,
Early Carolingian Warfare: Prelude to empire
(Philadelphia, PA, 2001), esp. pp. 170-77.
For recent discussions of the battle and the campaigns that led up to it, see I. Wood,
The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751
(London, 1994), pp. 281-4; P. Fouracre,
The Age of Charles Martel
(London, 2000), pp. 84-8; E. Manzano,
Conquistadores, Emires y Califes: los Omeyas y la formación de al-Andalus
(Barcelona, 2006), pp. 83-4. The military aspects of the battle are discussed in B. Bachrach,
Early Carolingian Warfare: Prelude to empire
(Philadelphia, PA, 2001), esp. pp. 170-77.
47
Gibbon,
Decline and Fall
, III, p. 336.
Gibbon,
Decline and Fall
, III, p. 336.
48
Bachrach,
Early Carolingian Warfare
, pp. 170 and 352, n. 45.
Bachrach,
Early Carolingian Warfare
, pp. 170 and 352, n. 45.
49
For this translation, and a critique of the older but very influential translation by J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, see Fouracre,
The Age of Charles Martel
, pp. 148-9.
For this translation, and a critique of the older but very influential translation by J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, see Fouracre,
The Age of Charles Martel
, pp. 148-9.
10. THE WAR AT SEA
1
G. F. Bass and F. H. Van Doorninck,
Yassi Ada
, vol. 1:
A Seventh-century Byzantine Shipwreck
(College Station, TX, 1982).
G. F. Bass and F. H. Van Doorninck,
Yassi Ada
, vol. 1:
A Seventh-century Byzantine Shipwreck
(College Station, TX, 1982).
2
For an overview of naval warfare in the Mediterranean from the mid sixth to the mid eighth centuries, see J. H. Pryor and E. M. Jeffreys,
The Age of the Dromon: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500-1204
(Leiden, 2006), pp. 19-34. For a detailed narrative of the early Islamic period, see E. Eickhoff,
Seekrieg und Seepolitik zwischen Islam und Abendland: das Mittelmeer unter byzantinischer und arabischer Hegemonies (650-1040)
(Berlin, 1966).
For an overview of naval warfare in the Mediterranean from the mid sixth to the mid eighth centuries, see J. H. Pryor and E. M. Jeffreys,
The Age of the Dromon: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500-1204
(Leiden, 2006), pp. 19-34. For a detailed narrative of the early Islamic period, see E. Eickhoff,
Seekrieg und Seepolitik zwischen Islam und Abendland: das Mittelmeer unter byzantinischer und arabischer Hegemonies (650-1040)
(Berlin, 1966).
3
See P. Crone, ‘How did the quranic pagans make a living?’,
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
63 (2005): 387-99 at p. 395.
See P. Crone, ‘How did the quranic pagans make a living?’,
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
63 (2005): 387-99 at p. 395.
4
On Cyprus at this time, see A. Cameron, ‘Cyprus at the time of the Arab conquests’,
Cyprus Historical Review
1 (1992): 27-49, reprinted
in eadem
,
Changing Cultures in Early Byzantium
(Aldershot, 1996), VI. For the Arab attacks, see A. Beihammer, ‘Zypern und die Byzantinisch-Arabische Seepolitik vom 8. bis zum Beginn des 10. Jahrhunderts’, in
Aspects of Arab Seafaring
, ed. Y.Y. al-Hijji and V. Christides (Athens, 2002), pp. 41-61.
On Cyprus at this time, see A. Cameron, ‘Cyprus at the time of the Arab conquests’,
Cyprus Historical Review
1 (1992): 27-49, reprinted
in eadem
,
Changing Cultures in Early Byzantium
(Aldershot, 1996), VI. For the Arab attacks, see A. Beihammer, ‘Zypern und die Byzantinisch-Arabische Seepolitik vom 8. bis zum Beginn des 10. Jahrhunderts’, in
Aspects of Arab Seafaring
, ed. Y.Y. al-Hijji and V. Christides (Athens, 2002), pp. 41-61.
5
Cameron, ‘Cyprus’, pp. 31-2.
Cameron, ‘Cyprus’, pp. 31-2.
6
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 152-3.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 152-3.
7
Balādhurī,
Futūh
. p. 154; Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, III, p. 709.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
. p. 154; Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, III, p. 709.
8
For the problems of the sources and the difficulties in working out what was attacked when, see L. I. Conrad, ‘The Conquest of Arwād: A source-critical study in the historiography of the early medieval Near East’, in
The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East, vol. I. Problems in the literary source material
(Papers of the First Workshop on Late Antiquity and Early Islam), ed. A. Cameron and L. I. Conrad (Princeton, NJ, 1992), pp. 317-401.
For the problems of the sources and the difficulties in working out what was attacked when, see L. I. Conrad, ‘The Conquest of Arwād: A source-critical study in the historiography of the early medieval Near East’, in
The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East, vol. I. Problems in the literary source material
(Papers of the First Workshop on Late Antiquity and Early Islam), ed. A. Cameron and L. I. Conrad (Princeton, NJ, 1992), pp. 317-401.
9
See A. N. Stratos, ‘The Naval engagement at Phoenix’, in
Charanis Studies: Essays in honor of Peter Charanis
, ed. A. E. Laiou-Thomadakis (New Brunswick, 1980), pp. 229-47.
See A. N. Stratos, ‘The Naval engagement at Phoenix’, in
Charanis Studies: Essays in honor of Peter Charanis
, ed. A. E. Laiou-Thomadakis (New Brunswick, 1980), pp. 229-47.
10
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, pp. 189-9; Ibn al-Athīr,
Kmil
, p. 119-20.
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, pp. 189-9; Ibn al-Athīr,
Kmil
, p. 119-20.
11
Ibn Abd al-Hakam wrongly calls him Heraclius.
Ibn Abd al-Hakam wrongly calls him Heraclius.
12
V. Christides, ‘Arab-Byzantine struggle in the sea: naval tactics (AD 7th-11th centuries): theory and practice’, in
Aspects of Arab Seafaring
, ed. Y.Y. al-Hijji and V. Christides (Athens, 2002), pp. 87-101 at p. 90.
V. Christides, ‘Arab-Byzantine struggle in the sea: naval tactics (AD 7th-11th centuries): theory and practice’, in
Aspects of Arab Seafaring
, ed. Y.Y. al-Hijji and V. Christides (Athens, 2002), pp. 87-101 at p. 90.
13
For the use of Greek fire, see Theophanes, ed. de Boor, I, pp. 353-4; Eickhoff,
Seekrieg
, pp. 21-3; J. Haldon,
Byzantium in the Seventh Centur
y (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 63-5. Also J. Haldon and M. Byrne, ‘A possible solution to the problem of Greek fire’,
Byzantinische Zeitschrift
70 (1977): 91-9.
For the use of Greek fire, see Theophanes, ed. de Boor, I, pp. 353-4; Eickhoff,
Seekrieg
, pp. 21-3; J. Haldon,
Byzantium in the Seventh Centur
y (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 63-5. Also J. Haldon and M. Byrne, ‘A possible solution to the problem of Greek fire’,
Byzantinische Zeitschrift
70 (1977): 91-9.
14
Abridged translation of the text in D. Olster, ‘Theodosius Grammaticus and the Arab Siege of 674-78’,
Byzantinoslavica
56 (1995), pp. 23-8; C. Makrypoulias, ‘Muslim ships through Byzantine eyes’, in al-Hijji and Christides,
Aspects
, p. 179-90.
Abridged translation of the text in D. Olster, ‘Theodosius Grammaticus and the Arab Siege of 674-78’,
Byzantinoslavica
56 (1995), pp. 23-8; C. Makrypoulias, ‘Muslim ships through Byzantine eyes’, in al-Hijji and Christides,
Aspects
, p. 179-90.
15
Theophanes,
Chronographia
, pp. 396-8.
Theophanes,
Chronographia
, pp. 396-8.
16
Theophanes,
Chronographia
, p. 399.
Theophanes,
Chronographia
, p. 399.
17
Balādhurī,
Futūh, p. 2
35; Eickhoff,
Seekrieg
, pp. 16-17.
Balādhurī,
Futūh, p. 2
35; Eickhoff,
Seekrieg
, pp. 16-17.
18
Eickhoff,
Seekrieg
, pp. 28-9.
Eickhoff,
Seekrieg
, pp. 28-9.
19
A. M. Fahmy,
Muslim Naval Organisation in the Eastern Mediterranean from the Seventh to the Tenth Century A.D
. (2nd edn, Cairo, 1966), p. 66.
A. M. Fahmy,
Muslim Naval Organisation in the Eastern Mediterranean from the Seventh to the Tenth Century A.D
. (2nd edn, Cairo, 1966), p. 66.
20
Eickhoff,
Seekrieg
, p. 37.
Eickhoff,
Seekrieg
, p. 37.
21
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 117-8. See the Glossary for this usage of
Mustaghal.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 117-8. See the Glossary for this usage of
Mustaghal.
22
J. Wilkinson,
Jerusalem Pilgrims before the Crusades
(rev. edn, Warminster, 2002), pp. 245, 247.
J. Wilkinson,
Jerusalem Pilgrims before the Crusades
(rev. edn, Warminster, 2002), pp. 245, 247.
23
Ya‘qūbī,
Buldn
, p. 327.
Ya‘qūbī,
Buldn
, p. 327.
24
Muqaddasī,
Ahsan al-Taqsim
, pp. 163-4.
Muqaddasī,
Ahsan al-Taqsim
, pp. 163-4.
25
Muqaddasī,
Ahsan l-Taq
a
sim
, pp. 162-3
Muqaddasī,
Ahsan l-Taq
a
sim
, pp. 162-3
26
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, III, p. 2200
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, III, p. 2200
27
Tabarī,
Ta’rikh
, III, p. 2250
Tabarī,
Ta’rikh
, III, p. 2250
28
Wilkinson,
Jerusalem Pilgrims
, pp. 196-8
Wilkinson,
Jerusalem Pilgrims
, pp. 196-8
29
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, pp. 191-2
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, pp. 191-2
30
Fahmy,
Muslim Naval Organisation
, pp. 36-7
Fahmy,
Muslim Naval Organisation
, pp. 36-7
31
Qudāma b. Ja‘far,
Al-Kharj wa Sina‘at al-Kitba
, ed. Muhammad Husayn al-Zubaydī (Baghdad, 1981), pp. 47-50.
Qudāma b. Ja‘far,
Al-Kharj wa Sina‘at al-Kitba
, ed. Muhammad Husayn al-Zubaydī (Baghdad, 1981), pp. 47-50.
32
For the design of warships in this period, see Pryor and Jeffreys,
The Age of the Dromon
, pp. 123-61, and F. M. Hocker, ‘Late Roman, Byzantine and Islamic fleets’, in
The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels since Pre-classical Times
, ed. R. Gardiner (London, 1995), pp. 86-100. See also Makrypoulias, ‘Muslim ships through Byzantine eyes’.
For the design of warships in this period, see Pryor and Jeffreys,
The Age of the Dromon
, pp. 123-61, and F. M. Hocker, ‘Late Roman, Byzantine and Islamic fleets’, in
The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels since Pre-classical Times
, ed. R. Gardiner (London, 1995), pp. 86-100. See also Makrypoulias, ‘Muslim ships through Byzantine eyes’.
33
For these technical innovations, see Pryor and Jeffreys,
The Age of the Dromon
, pp. 123-61.
For these technical innovations, see Pryor and Jeffreys,
The Age of the Dromon
, pp. 123-61.
34
Hocker, ‘Late Roman, Byzantine and Islamic fleets’, pp. 99-100.
Hocker, ‘Late Roman, Byzantine and Islamic fleets’, pp. 99-100.
35
Ibid., p. 99.
Ibid., p. 99.
36
Fahmy,
Muslim Naval Organisation
, pp. 102-3.
Fahmy,
Muslim Naval Organisation
, pp. 102-3.
37
Ibid., p. 84.
Ibid., p. 84.
11. VOICES OF THE CONQUERED
1
The indispensable source for non-Muslim views of early Islam is Hoyland,
Seeing Islam as Others Saw It
.
The indispensable source for non-Muslim views of early Islam is Hoyland,
Seeing Islam as Others Saw It
.
2
For Sophronius and his writing, see Wilken,
The Land Called Holy
, pp. 226-39; Hoyland,
Seeing Islam
, pp. 67-73.
For Sophronius and his writing, see Wilken,
The Land Called Holy
, pp. 226-39; Hoyland,
Seeing Islam
, pp. 67-73.
3
For a general introduction, see P. J. Alexander,
The Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition
(Berkeley, CA, 1985).
For a general introduction, see P. J. Alexander,
The Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition
(Berkeley, CA, 1985).
4
Hoyland,
Seeing Islam
, p. 258.
Hoyland,
Seeing Islam
, p. 258.
5
For a translation of the text described here, see
The Seventh Century in Western-Syrian Chronicles
, trans. A. Palmer (Liverpool, 1993), pp. 222-42, and the discussions in G. J. Reinink, ‘Ps.-Methodius: A concept of history in response to the rise of Islam’, in
The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East, I. Problems in the literary source material
, ed. A. Cameron and L. I. Conrad (Papers of the First Workshop on Late Antiquity and Early Islam) (Princeton, NJ, 1992), pp. 149-87; Hoyland,
Seeing Islam
, pp. 263-7.
For a translation of the text described here, see
The Seventh Century in Western-Syrian Chronicles
, trans. A. Palmer (Liverpool, 1993), pp. 222-42, and the discussions in G. J. Reinink, ‘Ps.-Methodius: A concept of history in response to the rise of Islam’, in
The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East, I. Problems in the literary source material
, ed. A. Cameron and L. I. Conrad (Papers of the First Workshop on Late Antiquity and Early Islam) (Princeton, NJ, 1992), pp. 149-87; Hoyland,
Seeing Islam
, pp. 263-7.
6
On Gabriel and the history of Qartmin in general, see A. Palmer,
Monk and Mason on the Tigris Frontier
(Cambridge, 1990), esp. pp. 153-9.
On Gabriel and the history of Qartmin in general, see A. Palmer,
Monk and Mason on the Tigris Frontier
(Cambridge, 1990), esp. pp. 153-9.
7
Quoted in S. Brock, ‘North Mesopotamia in the late seventh century: Book XV of John Bar Penkaye’s
Rīs Melle’
,
Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam
9 (1987): 51-75, p. 57 note b.
Quoted in S. Brock, ‘North Mesopotamia in the late seventh century: Book XV of John Bar Penkaye’s
Rīs Melle’
,
Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam
9 (1987): 51-75, p. 57 note b.
8
Sawīrus, ‘Life of Benjamin’, p. 492.
Sawīrus, ‘Life of Benjamin’, p. 492.
9
Sawīrus, ‘Life of Benjamin’, p. 494.
Sawīrus, ‘Life of Benjamin’, p. 494.
10
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, pp. 184, 200.
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, pp. 184, 200.
11
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 186.
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 186.
12
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 179.
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 179.
13
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 188.
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 188.
14
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 182.
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 182.
15
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 195.
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 195.
16
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 182.
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 182.
17
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 181.
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 181.
18
The Chronicle of 754
in
Conquerors and Chroniclers of Early Medieval Spain
, trans. K. B. Wolf (Liverpool, 1990), pp. 28-45, 111-58.
The Chronicle of 754
in
Conquerors and Chroniclers of Early Medieval Spain
, trans. K. B. Wolf (Liverpool, 1990), pp. 28-45, 111-58.
19
Brock, ‘North Mesopotamia’, p. 63.
Brock, ‘North Mesopotamia’, p. 63.
20
Chronicle of 754
, cap. 31, p. 123.
Chronicle of 754
, cap. 31, p. 123.
21
Chronicle of 754
, cap. 80, pp. 143-4.
Chronicle of 754
, cap. 80, pp. 143-4.
22
Chronicle of 754
, caps. 85-6, pp. 148-50.
Chronicle of 754
, caps. 85-6, pp. 148-50.
23
Hoyland,
Seeing Islam
, pp. 308-12, 526-7.
Hoyland,
Seeing Islam
, pp. 308-12, 526-7.
24
Daniel 11:39.
Daniel 11:39.
25
Text and translation in H. W. Bailey,
Zoroastrian Problems in the Ninth-Century Books
(Oxford, 1943), pp. 195-6; see also the comments in Hoyland,
Seeing Islam
, pp. 531-2.
Text and translation in H. W. Bailey,
Zoroastrian Problems in the Ninth-Century Books
(Oxford, 1943), pp. 195-6; see also the comments in Hoyland,
Seeing Islam
, pp. 531-2.
26
For Firdawsi’s life, with full bibliography, see D. Khaleghi-Motlagh, ‘Ferdowsi’, in
Encyclopaedia Iranica
, ed. E. Yarshater (London, 1985-) vol. ix, pp. 514-23.
For Firdawsi’s life, with full bibliography, see D. Khaleghi-Motlagh, ‘Ferdowsi’, in
Encyclopaedia Iranica
, ed. E. Yarshater (London, 1985-) vol. ix, pp. 514-23.
27
See Firdawsi,
Shahnāmah
, trans. D. Davis, vol. iii:
Sunset of Empire
(Washington, DC, 1998-2004), pp. 494-5.
See Firdawsi,
Shahnāmah
, trans. D. Davis, vol. iii:
Sunset of Empire
(Washington, DC, 1998-2004), pp. 494-5.
28
For the text and its context, see Hoyland,
Seeing Islam
, pp. 246-8.
For the text and its context, see Hoyland,
Seeing Islam
, pp. 246-8.
12. CONCLUSION
1
On this frontier, see J. F. Haldon and H. Kennedy, ‘The Arab-Byzantine frontier in the eighth and ninth centuries: military organisation and society in the borderlands’,
Zbornik radove Vizantoloskog instituta
19 (1980): 79-116, reprinted in H. Kennedy,
The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East
(Aldershot, 2006), VIII.
On this frontier, see J. F. Haldon and H. Kennedy, ‘The Arab-Byzantine frontier in the eighth and ninth centuries: military organisation and society in the borderlands’,
Zbornik radove Vizantoloskog instituta
19 (1980): 79-116, reprinted in H. Kennedy,
The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East
(Aldershot, 2006), VIII.
2
C. Foss, ‘The Persians in Asia Minor and the end of antiquity’,
English Historical Review
90 (1975): 721-47, reprinted in
idem
,
History and Archaeology of Byzantine Asia Minor
(Aldershot, 1990), I.
C. Foss, ‘The Persians in Asia Minor and the end of antiquity’,
English Historical Review
90 (1975): 721-47, reprinted in
idem
,
History and Archaeology of Byzantine Asia Minor
(Aldershot, 1990), I.
3
For the classic discussion of conversion to Islam, see R. Bulliet,
Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period. An Essay in Quantitative History
(Cambridge, MA, 1979). See also
idem
,
Islam: The View from the Edge
(New York, 1994), pp. 37-66, for the processes of conversion.
For the classic discussion of conversion to Islam, see R. Bulliet,
Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period. An Essay in Quantitative History
(Cambridge, MA, 1979). See also
idem
,
Islam: The View from the Edge
(New York, 1994), pp. 37-66, for the processes of conversion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES IN ENGLISH TRANSLATION
Muslim Sources
Alī b. Hāmid al-Kūfī,
Chachnamah: An Ancient History of Sind
, trans. M. K. Fredunbeg (Lahore, 1995).
Chachnamah: An Ancient History of Sind
, trans. M. K. Fredunbeg (Lahore, 1995).
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