Ancient Iraq (55 page)

Chapter 7

1
.
S. N. KRAMER
,
Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta: a Sumerian Epic Tale of Iraq and Iran
, Philadelphia, 1952.

2
.
S. N. KRAMER
, ‘Enki and Ninhursag: a Paradise myth' in
ANET
, PP. 37 – 41.

3
.
E. A. SPEISER
, ‘Adapa’ in
ANET
, pp. 101 – 3;
S. A. PICCHIONI
,
Il Poemetto di Adapa
, Budapest, 1981.

4
. G. ROUX, ‘Adapa, le vent et l'eau’,
RA
, LV (1961), pp. 13 – 33.

5
.
TH. JACOBSEN
, ‘Primitive democracy in ancient Mesopotamia’,
JNES
, II (1943), pp. 159 – 72; ‘Early political development in Mesopotamia’,
ZA
, LII (1957), pp. 91 – 140.

6
.
TH. JACOBSEN
,
The Sumerian King List
, Chicago, 1939.

7
.
Bad-tibira
has been identified with Tell Medain, near Telloh [
V.E. CRAWFORD
,
Iraq
, XXII (1960), pp. 197 – 9].
Larak
might be Tell el Wilaya, near Kut-el-Imara [
Sumer
, XV (1959), p. 51].
Sippar
is modern Abu Habba, about 32 kilometres south-west of Baghdad, partly excavated by
H. RASSAM
in 1881 – 2, by
V. SCHEIL
in 1894 and by
W. ANDRAE
and
J. JORDAN
in 1927 (cf.
AM
, I, pp. 101, 159, 326).
Shuruppak
is Tell Fara, about 64 kilometres south-east of Diwaniyah, excavated by the Germans in 1902 – 3 (
H. HEINRICH
and
W. ANDRAE
,
Fara
, Berlin, 1931) and by the Americans in 1931 [
E. SCHMIDT
,
Museum Journal
, (Philadelphia) XXII (1931), pp. 193 – 245].

8
. ‘Gilgamesh’, tablet XI, 9 – 196 (quotations from
A. HEIDEL'S
translation). See also:
E. SOLLBERGER
,
The Flood
, London, 1962.

9
. Usually identified with mount Pir Omar Gudrun, 2,612 metres, in the Zagros range, south of the Lower Zab [
E. A. SPEISER
,
AASOR
, VIII (1928), pp. 18, 31].

10
. For these early versions, cf.:
ANET
, pp. 42 – 4, 99 – 100, 104–6, 512 – 14, and
W. G. LAMBERT
and
A. R. MILLARD
.,
Atra-hasis. The Babylonian Story of the Flood
, Oxford, 1969.

11
.
SIR LEONARD WOOLLEY
,
AJ
, IX (1929), pp. 323 – 30; X (1930), pp. 330 – 41;
Ur of the Chaldees
, London, 1950, p. 29;
Excavations at Ur
, London, 1954, pp. 34 – 6;
UE
, IV, pp. 15 ff.

12
. Among recent publications on this subject, cf.:
M. E. L. MALLOWAN
, ‘Noah's Flood reconsidered’,
Iraq
, XXVI (1964), pp. 62 – 82;
H. J. LENZEN
, ‘Zur Flutschicht in Ur’,
BM
, III (1964), pp. 52 – 64;
R. L. RAIKES
, ‘The physical evidence for Noah's Flood’,
Iraq
, XXVIII (1966), pp. 52 – 63.

13
.
A. D. KILMER
, ‘The Mesopotamian concept of overpopulation and its solution reflected in mythology’,
Orientalia
, XLI (1972), pp. 160 – 77.

14
.
H. DE GENOUILLAC
,
Premières Recherches Archéologiques à Kich
, 2 vol., Paris, 1924 – 5;
S. LANGDON, L. C. WATELIN
,
Excavations at Kish
, 3 vol., Paris, 1924 – 3. Updating by
P. R. S. MOOREY
,
Kish Excavations
, 1922 – 3, Oxford, 1978. Present name of the site: al-Uhaimir.

15
. English translation by
E. A. SPEISER
in
ANET
, pp. 114 – 18. The latest, most complete study is that of
J. V. KINNIER WILSON
,
The Legend of Etana, a New Edition
, Warminster, 1985.

16
.
S. N. KRAMER
; ‘Gilgamesh and Agga’,
ANET
, pp. 44 – 7;
W. H. P. RÖMER
,
Das Sumerische Kurzepos Bilgamesh und Akka
, Neukirchen-Vluyin, 1980.

17
. For Enmerkar, see note 1 above, plus:
A. BERLIN
,
Enmerkar and Ensuhkeshdanna: a Sumerian Narrative Poem
, Philadelphia, 1979. For Lugalbanda,
C. WILCKE
,
Das Lugalbanda Epos
, Wiesbaden, 1969.

18
. Located near lake Urmiah by
E. I. GORDON
,
Bi. Or.
, XVII (1960), p. 132, n. 63; near Kerman, in central Iran, by
Y. MADJIZADEH
,
JNES
, XXXV (1976), p. 107; around Shahr-i Sokhta, in eastern Iran, by
J. F. HANSMAN
,
JNES
, XXXVII (1978), pp. 331 – 6.

19
. On the Sumerian cycle of Gilgamesh, see
HBS
, pp. 174 – 81 and 190 – 99;
ANET
, pp. 45 – 52;
Gilgamesh et sa Légende
, Paris, 1960.

20
. In 1960 the Gilgamesh epic had been translated into twelve languages (
Gilgamesh et sa Légende
, pp. 24 – 7, and this figure is probably much higher now. Among the main English translations are those of
A. HEIDEL
,
The Gilgamesh Epic and Old Testament Parallels
, Chicago, 1949;
E. A. SPEISER
and
A. K. GRAYSON
in
ANET
, pp. 72 – 9 and 503 – 7 (from which we quote), and
J. GARDNER, J. MAIER
and
R. HENSHAW
,
Gilgamesh
, New York, 1984.

21
. Beside various Iraqi sites (notably Nineveh), fragments of tablets of the Gilgamesh epic have been found in Palestine (Megiddo) and Turkey (Sultan Tepe, Boghazköy). The Hittite and Hurrian translations were found at the latter site.

Chapter
8

1
. Inscriptions found in 1973 at al-Hiba have shown that this site is ancient Lagash, whilst Telloh is Girsu. The two towns are 30 kilometres apart, but together with Shurgal (Nina) they were part of the same city-state named ‘Lagash’.
V. E. CRAWFORD
, ‘Lagash’,
Iraq
, XXVI (1974), pp. 29 – 35.

2
. Fifteen campaigns of excavations were carried out in Girsu (then called Lagash) between 1877 and 1910, and four campaigns between 1929 and 1933. For a review of the overall results, see
A. PARROT
,
Tello
, Paris, 1948.

3
.
D. O. EDZARD
, ‘Enmebaragesi von Kish’,
ZA
, 53 (1959), pp. 9 – 26.

4
. Abu Salabikh is 20 kilometres from Nippur. It has been excavated by the Americans from 1963 to 1965 and by the British since 1975. Preliminary reports in
Iraq
since 1976. Overall results of excavations by
N. POSTGATE
in
J. CURTIS
(ed.),
Fifty Years of Mesopotamian Discovery
, London, 1982, pp. 48 – 61. The ancient name of this town could be Kesh (not to be confused with Kish).

5
. The Italian excavations at Ebla began in 1964 and are still in progress. General books on archaeology and texts:
P. MATTHIAE
;
Ebla, an Empire Rediscovered
, New York, 1980;
G. PETTINATO
,
The Archives of Ebla. An Empire Inscribed in Clay
; Garden City, N.Y., 1981. The texts are published in two parallel series:
Materiali Epigrafici di Ebla
, Napoli, since 1979, and
Archivi Reali di Ebla
, Roma, since 1985. Numerous studies in the periodical
Studi Eblaiti
, Roma, since 1979 and many other publications.

6
. Preliminary reports of the first twenty-one campaigns of excavations at Mari (1933 – 9 and 1951 – 74) in
Syria
and
AAAS.
Four volumes of final reports have been published. The temples, sculptures and inscriptions of the Early Dynastic period can be found in
Mission Archéologique de Mari
, vol. I,
Le Temple d'Ishtar
, Paris, 1956; vol. III,
Les Temples d'Ishtarat et de Ninni-zaza
, Paris, 1967, vol. IV,
Le Trésor d'Ur
, Paris, 1968. For an overview, see:
A. PARROT
, Mari, Capitale Fabuleuse, Paris, 1974. The French excavations at Mari have been resumed and are going on.

7
.
W. ANDRAE
,
Das wiedererstandene Assur
, Leipzig, 1938, 2nd revised edition, Munich, 1977. For more detail, by the same author:
Die archaischen Ischtar-Temple in Assur
, Leipzig, 1922.

8
. British excavations from 1967 to 1973. Preliminary reports in
Iraq
, XXX (1968) to XXXV (1973). Overall results by
J. E. READE
in
J. CURTIS
(ed.),
Fifty Years
…, pp. 72 – 8.

9
. German excavations under
A. MOORTGAT
, since 1958. Prelimi-nary reports 1969 – 73 by
A. MOORTGAT
et al
., Tell Chuera in
Nordöst Syrien
, Köln and Opladen, 1960 – 75.

10
. Eight volume of reports on the Chicago Oriental Institute excavations in the Diyala basin have been published between 1940 and 1967 in the series ‘Oriental Institute Publications’ (
OIP
). Six of them concern the third millennium
B.C
. For a short description see
SETON LLOYD
,
The Archaeology of Mesopotamia
, London, 1978, pp. 93

11
.
O. TUNCA
,
L'Architecture Religieuse Protodynastique en Mésopotamie
, 2 vol., Leuven, 1984. Also see.
H. E. W. CRAWFORD
,
The Architecture of Iraq in the Third Millennium
B.C
., Copenhagen, 1977, pp. 22 – 6 and 80 – 82.

12
. Cf.
A. PARROT
,
Sumer
, 2nd edition, 1981, fig. 13 – 15, 127 – 30, 133, 134 (Tell Asmar); 131, 132 (Khafaje); 137–8 (Tell Khueira); 30, 148, 153, 154 (Mari); 139 – 41 (Nippur), 135 (Eridu), 136 (Telloh); 144 (al-Ubaid).

13
.
A. PARROT
,
Sumer
, 1981, p. 148.

14
.
SETON LLOYD
,
The Archaeology of Mesopotamia
, London, 1978, pp. 132 – 4;
G. M. SCHWARTZ
, ‘The Ninevite V period and current research’,
Paléorient
, 11, 1985, pp. 52 – 70;
M. ROAF, R. KILICK
, ‘A mysterious affair of style: the Ninevite V pottery of Northern Mesopotamia’,
Iraq
, XLIX (1987), pp. 199 – 230.

15
.
SETON LLOYD
, Op. cit., pp. 124 – 7;
D. COLLON
,
First Impressions. Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East
, London, 1987, pp. 20 – 31.

16
. Numerous studies have been devoted to this subject. Among these, see:
A. FALKENSTEIN
, ‘La cité-temple sumérienne’ in
Cahiers d'Histoire Mondiale
I, Paris, 1954, pp. 784 – 814;
S. N. KRAMER
,
The Sumerians
, Chicago, 1963, pp. 73 – 112;
I. J. GELB
, ‘The ancient Mesopotamian ration system’,
JNES
, XXIV (1965), pp. 230 – 43;
C. C. LAMBERG-KARLOVISKY
; ‘The economic world of Sumer’ in
D. SCHMANDT-BESSERAT
(ed.),
The Legacy of Sumer
, Malibu, Calif., 1976, pp. 59 – 68.

17
.
I. M. DIAKONOFF
,
Sale of Land in Presargonic Sumer
, Moscow, 1954.

18
.
W. W. HALLO
,
Early Mesopotamian Royal Titles
, New Haven, 1967;
M. J. SEUX
,
Epithètes Royales Akkadiennes et Sumériennes
, Paris, 1967.

19
. Kish:
E. MACKAY
,
A Sumerian Palace and the ‘A' Cemetery at Kish
, Chicago, 1929;
P. R. S. MOOREY
,
Kish Excavations
, Oxford, 1978, pp. 55 – 60; Mari:
A. PARROT
,
Syria
, XLII (1965) to XLIX (1972);
Mari, Capitale Fabuleuse
, Paris, 1974, pp. 73 – 88; Eridu:
F. SAFAR
,
Sumer
, VII (1950), pp. 31 – 3.

20
.
C. L. WOOLLEY
,
Ur, the Royal Cemetery (UE
II), London, 1934;
Ur of the Chaldees
(updated by
P. R. S. MOOREY
), London, 1982, pp. 51 – 103.

21
.
C. J. GADD
, ‘The spirit of living sacrifice in tombs’,
Iraq
, XXII (1960), pp. 51 – 8.

22
.
ANET
, p. 51 [cf.
S. N. KRAMER
,
Iraq
, XXII (1960), pp. 59 – 68].

23
.
P. R. S. MOOREY
, ‘What do we know about the people buried in the Royal Cemetery?’,
Expedition
, XX (1977 – 8), pp. 24 – 40; G. ROUX, ‘La grande énigme des tombes d'Ur’,
L'Histoire
, (Paris), LXXV (1985), pp. 56 – 66.

24
.
M. LAMBERT
, ‘Les réformes d'Urukagina’,
RA
, LI (1957), pp. 139 – 44, and
Orientalia
, XLIV (1975), pp. 22 – 51;
S. N. KRAMER
,
The Sumerians
, pp. 79 – 83;
B. HRUSK
, ‘Die Reformtexte Urukaginas‘, in
Le Palais et la Royauté
, pp. 151 – 61.

25
. The very important site of Ur (el-Mughayir, 15 kilometres south-west of Nasriyah) was excavated by a British-American team from 1922 to 1934. Final reports in
Ur Excavations (UE)
, London, 10 volumes published. Texts in
Ur Excavations Texts (UET)
, London/Philadelphia, 9 volumes published. For an overview see
C. L. WOOLLEY
Ur of the Chaldees
, London, 1982.

26
.
A. PARROT
and
G. DOSSIN
,
Le Trésor d'Ur
, Paris, 1968. On the problems raised by this discovery, cf.
M. E. L. MALLOWAN
,
Bi.Or
., XXVI (1969), pp. 87 – 9;
E. SOLLBERGER
,
RA
, LXIII (1969), pp. 169 – 70, and
G. DOSSIN
,
RA
, LXIV (1970), pp. 163-8.

27
. As told by Entemena:
ISA
, pp. 63 ff.;
RISA
, pp. 57 ff.,
IRSA
, pp. 71 ss. Latest study:
J. S. COOPER
,
Reconstructing History from Ancient Inscriptions: the Lagash-Umma Border Conflict
, Malibu, Calif., 1983.

28
. Akshak is probably to be located to the east of the Tigris, between the Diyala and the Lesser Zab.

29
. This text was initially published by
G. PETTINATO
, notably in
Oriens Antiquus
, XIX (1980), pp. 231 – 45, as a campaign of Eblaites against Mari. This was challenged on grammatical grounds by
D. O. EDZARD
in
Studi Eblaiti
, XIX (1980) and interpreted by him, followed by other scholars, as described here.

30
.
A. ARCHI
, ‘Les rapports politiques et économiques entre Ebla et Mari’ in
MARI
, IV, Paris, 1985, pp. 63–83.

31
.
F. PINNOCK
, ‘About the trade of early Syrian Ebla’,
ibid
., pp. 85 – 92.

32
. Excavated by the University of Chicago in 1903 – 4.
E. J. BANKS
,
Bismaya, or the Lost City of Adab
, New York, 1912.

33
.
ISA
, pp. 90 ff.;
RISA
, pp. 89 ff.;
S. N. KRAMER
,
The Sumerians
, pp. 322 – 3.

34
.
ISA
, pp. 218 ff.;
RISA
, pp. 97 ff.;
TH. JACOBSEN
,
ZA
, 52 (1957), pp. 135 – 6;
S. N. KRAMER
,
The Sumerians
, pp. 323 – 4.