Ancient Iraq (57 page)
Chapter
11
1
. On the socio-economic conditions of Mesopotamia in that period, see:
A. L. OPPENHEIM
,
Ancient Mesopotamia
, Chicago, 1964, pp. 74 – 125, and
C. J. GADD
in
CAH
, II, 1, pp. 190 – 208. Numerous articles have been published on the subject.
2
.
W. F. LEEMANS
,
The Old Babylonian Merchant
, Leiden, 1950;
Foreign Trade in the Old Babylonian Period
, Leiden, 1960.
3
.
F. R. KRAUS
, ‘The role of temples from the third dynasty of Ur to the first Babylonian dynasty’,
Cahiers d'Histoire Mondiale
, I, 1954, p. 535.
4
. Isin is Ishan Bahriyat, 25 kilometres south of Nippur. German excavations started in 1973 are still in progress. First final reports:
B. HROUDA
,
Isin-Ishan Bahriyat
, I and II, Münnchen, 1977, 1981. Larsa is Senkereh, 48 kilometres north of Nasriyah and not far from Uruk. French excavations in progress since 1968. Interim reports by
J. C. MARGUERON
, then
J. L. HUOT
in
Sumer
, XXVII (1971) ff. and
Syria
, XLVII (1970) ff. Also see:
J. L. HuoT
(ed.),
Larsa et 'Oueili, Travaux de 1978 – 1981
, Paris, 1983.
5
.
W. P. H. ROMER
,
Sumerische ‘Königshymnen’ der Isin-Zeit
, Leiden, 1965. A list of these hymns has been published by
W. W. HALLO
in
Bi. Or
., XXIII (1966), pp. 239 – 47.
6
.
A. L. OPPENHEIM
, ‘The seafaring merchants of Ur’,
JAOS
, LXXIV (1954), pp. 6 – 17.
7
.
S. N. KRAMER
, ‘The Lipit-Ishtar Lawcode’ in
ANET
, pp. 159 – 61. E. SZLECHTER, ‘Le code de Lipit-Ishtar’, RA, LI (1957), pp. 57 – 82; 177 – 96, and
RA
, LII (1958), pp. 74 – 89.
8
. On the substitute King, cf.:
H. FRANKFORT
,
Kingship and the Gods
, Chicago, 1955, pp. 262 – 5.
J. BOTTERO
, ‘Le substitut royal et son sort en Mésopotamie ancienne’,
Akkadica
, IX (1978), pp. 2 – 24.
9
.
A. K. GRAYSON
,
ABC
, p. 155.
10
. Marad is Wanna es-Sa'dun, 24 kilometres north of Diwaniya. On these small Amorite kingdoms, see:
D. O. EDZARD
,
Die Zweite Zwischenzeit Babyloniens
, Wiesbaden, 1957.
11
.
H. FRANKFORT, SETON LLOYD, TH. JACOBSEN
,
The Gimilsin Temple and the Palace of the Rulers at Tell Asmar
, Chicago, 1940, pp. 116 – 200. Also see
D. O. EDZARD
, op. cit., pp. 71 – 4; 118 – 21; 162 – 7.
12
.
E. SZLECHTER
,
Les Lois d'Eshnunna
, Paris, 1954;
A. GOETZE
,
The Laws of Eshnunna
, New Haven, 1956;
ANET
, pp. 161 – 3.
13
.
TAHA BAQIR
,
Tell Harmal
, Baghdad, 1959. The texts from Tell Harmal have been published in
Sumer
, VI (1950) to XIV (1958) and in
JCS
, XIII (1959) to XXVII (1975).
14
.
Assur
(Qal'at Sherqat) was excavated by a German expedition under
W. ANDRAE
between 1903 and 1914. Final reports were published in the
WVDOG
collection until the middle fifties. For a condensed account of the results, cf.
W. ANDRAE
,
Das widererstandene Assur
(2nd edition revised by
B. HROUDA
), München, 1977.
15
.
A. POEBEL
, ‘The Assyrian King List from Khorsabad’,
JNES
, I (1942), pp. 247 – 306; 460 – 95. A similar list has been published by
I. J. GELB
in
JNES
, XIII (1954), pp. 209 – 30. On these lists, see:
F. R. KRAUS
,
Könige, die in Zelton wohnten
, Amsterdam, 1965, and
H. LEWY
in
CAH
, I, 2, pp. 743 – 52.
16
. On the beginnings of the Assyrian kingdom, see
D. OATES
,
Studies in the Ancient History of Northern Iraq
, London, 1968, pp. 19 – 41.
17
. The inscriptions of the early kings of Assyria have been published in
ARI
, I, pp. 4 – 18 and in
RIMA
, I, pp. 14 – 46.
18
. On the palace, see:
J. MARGUERON
, ‘L'architecture de la fin du IIIe millénaire à Mari’ in Miscellanea Babylonica, Paris, 1985, pp. 211 – 22. On the history:
J. M. DURAND
, ‘La situation historique des
shakkanakku
: nouvelle approche’,
MARI
, 4, 1985, pp. 147 – 72.
19
.
D. CHARPIN, J. M. DURAND
, ‘“Fils de Sim'al”: les origines tribales des rois de Mari’,
RA
, LXXX (1986), pp. 141 – 83.
20
.
G. DOSSIN
, ‘L’inscription de fondation de Iahdun-Lim, roi de Mari,
Syria
, XXXII (1955), pp. 1 – 28.
21
.
D. CHARPIN
, in
Miscellanea Babylonica
, pp. 60 – 61.
22
. Tell Leilan, excavated by a team of Yale University since 1979, has yielded a super temple with spiral columns and a large building containing tablets and cylinder-seals. Latest interim report in
AJA
, XCXIV (1990), pp. 529 – 81. Also see. H. WEISS, ‘Tell Leilan and Shubat-Enlil’,
MARI
, 4, pp. 269 – 92.
23
.
M. T. LARSEN
, in
RA
, XLVIII (1974), p. 16. This opinion is shared by D. CHARPIN and
J. M. DURAND
.
24
. The 20,000 odd tablets (most, but not all letters) which form the royal archives of Mari are published in transliteration and translation as
Archives Royales de Mari (ARMT
), Paris, 1950 ff. In 1991, this series, not yet completed, had twenty-six volumes. Many other texts or studies are published separately in
MARI (= Mari, Annales de Recherches Interdisciplinaires
); Paris, created in 1982 (seven volumes published), and in other periodicals such as
RA, Iraq, Syria
, etc.
25
.
ARMT
, I, 124. The three quotations that follow are taken from
ARMT
(volume and number), IV, 70; I, 61 and I, 69 respectively.
26
.
J. R. KUPPER
,
Les Nomades en Mésopotamie au temps des Rois de Mari
, Paris, 1957.
27
.
Qatna
, modern Mishrifeh, 18 kilometres north-east of Horns, was excavated by the French between 1924 and 1929:
R. DU MESNIL DU BUISSON
,
Le Site Archéologique de Mishrifé-Qatna
, Paris, 1935.
28
.
ARMT
, V, 6.
29.
ARMT
, IV, 88.
30
. Inscription of Samsi-Addu in
ARI
, I, p. 26.
31
.
BAHIJA KHALIL ISMAIL
, ‘Eine Siegesstele des Konigs Dadusa von Esnunna’, in
W. MEID
and
H. TRENKWALDER
,
Im Bannkreis des Alten Orients
, Innsbruck, 1986, pp. 105 – 8.
32
.
ARMT
, I, 93; IV, 5, 14.
33
.
ARMT
, V, 56.
Chapter 12
1
. For example the head of Hammurabi (?) at the Louvre Museum and the top of the stele with Hammurabi's ‘Code of Laws’ (
A. PARROT
,
Sumer
, 1981, figs. 282 and 280 respectively).
2
. Illustrations corresponding to these examples can be found in
A. PARROT
, op. cit., pp. 257 – 98.
3
.
W. G. LAMBERT
,
Babylonian Wisdom Literature
, Oxford, 1960, p. 10.
4
.
T. JACOBSEN
,
The Treasures of Darkness
, New Haven, 1976, p. 147.
5
.
W. G. LAMBERT
,
op. cit
. above.
6
. On the reign in general, see:
TH. DE LIAGRE BOHL
, ‘King Hammurabi of Babylon in the setting of his time’, in
Opera Minora
, Leiden, 1953, pp. 339 – 63;
H. SCHMÖKEL
,
Hammurabi von Babylon
, Oldenbourg, 1958;
H. KLENGEL
,
Hammurapi von Babylon und seine Zeit
, Berlin, 1976;
C. J. GADD
in
CAH
, II, 1, pp. 176 – 220.
7
. The date-formulae of Hammurabi are given in German translation by
UNGNAD
in
RLA
, II, pp. 178 – 82. English translation by
A. L. OPPENHEIM
in
ANET
, pp. 269 – 71. It has been suggested that in these first campaigns Hammurabi acted as ally, or even as vassal of Shamshi-Adad of Assyria (
C. J. GADD
,
CAH
, II, 1, p. 177).
8
.
D. CHARPIN, J. M. DURAND
, ‘La prise du pouvoir par Zimri-Lim’ in
MARI
, 4, 1985, pp. 318 – 19.
9
. On a recently published seal of Zimri-Lim, this king calls himself ‘son of Hadni-Addu’ (
MARI
, 4, pp. 336 – 8), This does not necessarily mean that his true father was not Iahdun-Lim, as Zimri-Lim might have been adopted by Hadni-Addu (otherwise unknown) when he was in exile.
10
.
B. LAFONT
, ‘Les filles du roi de Mari, in J. M. DURAND (ed.),
La Femme dans le Proche-Orient Antique
, Paris, 1987, pp. 113 – 25.
11
.
A. T. CLAY
,
The Empire of the Amorites
, New Haven, 1919, p. 97.
12
.
L. KING
,
The Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi
, London, 1900 – 1902;
F. THUREAU-DANGIN
, ‘La correspondance de Hammurabi avec Shamash-hasir’,
RA
XXI (1924), pp. 1 – 58.
13
.
D. O. EDZARD
,
The Near East
, New York, 1967, pp. 213 – 14;
R. HARRIS
,
Ancient Sippar
, Leiden, 1975, pp. 39 – 142;
N. YOFFEE
,
The Economic Role of the Crown in the Old Babylonian Period
, Malibu, Calif., 1977, p. 148;
R. HARRIS
, ‘On the process of secularization under Hammurabi’,
JCS
, XV (1961), pp. 117 – 20.
14
. Code of Hammurabi, Prologue, I, 1 – 30. Marduk, in Sumerian
AMAR-UTU
, ‘bullock of the Sun-god’ seems to have been a solar deity of minor rank. Although the patron god of Babylon, the capital-city of the first great Babylonian kingdom, he did not figure at the head of the pantheon until the second half of the second millennium
B. C
. See:
H. SCHMÖKEL
, ‘Hammurabi und Marduk’,
RA
, LIII (1959), pp. 183 – 204.
15
. The Code of Hammurabi has been translated into several languages and copiously commented. The most recent English translations are in
ANET
, pp. 163 – 80 (
TH. J. MEEK
) and in
G. R. DRIVER
and
G. C. MILES
,
Babylonian Laws
, Oxford, 1955 – 6. Vol. I: Legal Commentary; vol. II: Translation and Philological Commentary.
16
.
G. R. DRIVER
and
G. C. MILES
,
Babylonian Laws
, pp. 48 ff.;
F. R. KRAUS
, ‘Ein zentrales Problem des altmesopotamischen Rechtes: was ist der Codex Hammu-rabi?’,
Genava
, VIII (1960), pp. 283 – 96;
J. J. FINKELSTEIN
, ‘Ammisaduqa's edict and the Babylonian “Law Codes”’,
JCS
, XV (1961), pp. 91 – 104;
D. J. WISEMAN
, ‘The Laws of Hammurabi again’,
JSS
, VII (1962), pp. 161 – 72.
17.
Part of the stele was erased in antiquity, resulting in the loss of five to seven columns of text and approximately thirty-five laws. Fragments of the Code on clay tablets help fill the gap.
18
.
E. A. SPEISER
, ‘Mushkênum’,
Orientalia
, XXVII (1958), pp. 19 – 28. The
mushkênum
is already mentioned in the Laws of Eshnunna, §§ 12, 13, 24, 34, 50.
19
. The Babylonian marriage was essentially a contract (
CH
, § 128). Before the ceremony, the future husband presented his father-in-law with a ‘bridal gift’ (
terhatum
), and the bride's father gave her a dowry (
sheriqtum
) of which she had perpetual possession.
20
. Neither the Laws of Eshnunna nor the Sumerian Laws (Ur-Nammu, Lipit-Ishtar) mention the
ilkum
which might have been introduced by Hammurabi as a political measure. Note, however, that the absence of this institution in these Law Codes could be due to the fact that they are not so well preserved as the Code of Hammurabi.
21
. Code of Hammurabi, Epilogue, xxiv, 30 – 59 (transl.
TH. J. MEEK
).