From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 (190 page)

49
. Quoted in Bemis,
Adams,
385.

50
. Seventh Annual Message, December 2, 1823, in James D. Richardson, ed.,
A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents of the United States
(20 vols., Washington, 1897–1916), 2:776–789.

51
. Gale W. McGee, "The Monroe Doctrine—A Stopgap Measure,"
Mississippi Valley Historical Review
38 (September 1951), 233–50.

52
. Perkins,
Monroe Doctrine,
73–75. Metternich is quoted on pp. 55–57.

53
. Saul,
Distant Friends,
101–3.

54
. James E. Lewis Jr.,
John Quincy Adams: Policymaker for the Union
(Wilmington, Del., 2001), 103.

55
. Hargreaves,
Adams,
116–17; Karl M. Schmitt,
Mexico and the United States, 1821–1973: Conflict and Coexistence
(New York, 1974), 35–41.

56
. Hargreaves,
Adams,
114–15.

57
. Quoted in Field,
Mediterranean World,
92.

58
. Quoted in Hargreaves,
Adams,
114.

59
. Field,
Mediterranean World,
68–101; Ussama Makdisi, "Reclaiming the Land of the Bible: Missionaries, Secularism, and Evangelical Modernity,"
American Historical Review
102 (June 1997), 680–90.

60
. Adams's July 4, 1821, speech to the House of Representatives may be conveniently found at
www.millercenter.virginia.edu/academic/americanpresidents/jqadams
.

61
. Hargreaves,
Adams,
119–21.

62
. Ibid., 127; Lewis,
Adams,
87–88.

63
. Hargreaves,
Adams,
128.

64
. Ibid., 127; David Bushnell, "Simon Bolivar and the United States: A Study in Ambivalence,"
Air University Review
37 (July–August 1986), 106–12.

65
. Hargreaves,
Adams,
129–31.

66
. Sellers,
Market Revolution,
273; Remini,
Clay,
299; Lars Schoultz,
Beneath the United States: A History of U.S. Policy Toward Latin America
(Cambridge, Mass., 1998), 80–81.

67
. Hargreaves,
Adams,
140–46; Remini,
Clay,
301–3.

68
. Quoted in Hargreaves,
Adams,
157.

69
. Ibid., 147–148; Remini,
Clay,
292–95.

70
. Remini,
Clay,
300–301.

71
. Lewis,
Adams,
99.

72
. Ibid., 95; Weeks,
Continental Empire,
58–59.

73
. Donald B. Cole,
The Presidency of Andrew Jackson
(Lawrence, Kans., 1993), 41–42, 93, 241–42; John M. Belohlavek, "
Let the Eagle Soar!" The Foreign Policy of Andrew Jackson
(Lincoln, Neb., 1985), 34–36.

74
. Davis, "Diplomatic Plumage," 171–72.

75
. Belohlavek,
Eagle,
92–106.

76
. Walter Russell Mead,
Special Providence: American Foreign Policy and How It Changed the World
(New York, 2001) uses Jackson to represent a belligerent strain in U.S. foreign policy. Arthur Schlesinger Jr. depicts a gentler, more diplomatic Jackson in
New York Review of Books
(May 15, 2003), 19.

77
. Cole,
Jackson,
121–23.

78
. Belohlavek,
Eagle,
92–106.

79
. Quoted in Marvin R. Zahniser,
Uncertain Friendship: American-French Relations Through the Cold War
(New York, 1975), 102.

80
. Cole,
Jackson,
126–27.

81
. Ibid., 124–25.

82
. Quoted in Charles R. Ritcheson, "Van Buren's Mission to London, 1831–1832,"
International History Review
8 (May 1986), 198–211.

83
. Belohlavek,
Eagle,
84–88; Saul,
Distant Friends,
121–22.

84
. Field,
Mediterranean World,
141–53; Belohlavek,
Eagle,
128–38.

85
. Robert Hopkins Miller,
The United States and Vietnam, 1787–1941
(Washington, 1990), 32–40. Also Ronald Spector, "The American Image of Southeast Asia, 1790–1865: A Preliminary Assessment,"
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies
111 (September 1972), 299–305, and Belohlavek,
Eagle,
162–77.

86
. Schroeder,
Maritime Empire,
34.

87
. Christian J. Maisch, "Falkland/Malvinas Islands Clash of 1831–1832,"
Diplomatic History
24 (Spring 2000), 185–210. Jackson's gunboat diplomacy is vigorously defended in Craig Evan Klafter, "United States Involvement in the Falklands Islands Crisis of 1831–1833,"
Journal of the Early Republic
4 (Winter 1984), 395–420.

88
. Belohlavek,
Eagle,
152–62.

89
. Schroeder,
Maritime Empire,
28; Belohlavek,
Eagle,
162.

90
. Robert L. Meriwether et al.,
The Papers of John C. Calhoun
(28 vols., Columbia, S.C., 1959–2003), 3:350.

91
. Reginald Horsman,
Race and Manifest Destiny
(Cambridge, Mass., 1981), 198.

92
. Cole,
Jackson,
67–74.

93
. Robert V. Remini,
Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom
,
1822–1832
(New York, 1981), 270, 272.

94
. Horsman,
Race
, 202.

95
. Remini,
Jackson
, 202, 218.

96
. Belohlavek,
Eagle,
225.

97
. Quinton C. Lamar, "A Diplomatic Disaster: The Mexican Mission of Anthony Butler, 1829–1834,"
Americas
45 (July 1988), 1–18; Joe Gibson, " 'A. Butler: What a Scamp!' "
Journal of the West
2 (1972), 235–47.

1
. William H. Gilman et al.,
Journals of Ralph Waldo Emerson
(14 vols., Cambridge, Mass., 1960–78), 9:430–31.

2
. Paul Kennedy,
The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers
(New York, 1987), 150; Stephen Pelz, "Changing International Systems, the World Balance of Power, and the United States, 1776–1976,"
Diplomatic History
12 (Winter 1988), 57–58.

3
. William Earl Weeks,
Building the Continental Empire: American Expansion from the Revolution to the Civil War
(Chicago, 1996), 85.

4
. Kinley J. Brauer, "The United States and British Imperial Expansion, 1815–1860,"
Diplomatic History
12 (Winter 1988), 36–37.

5
. Quoted in Larry Gara,
The Presidency of Franklin Pierce
(Lawrence, Kans., 1991), 129.

6
. Quoted in Robert W. Johannsen,
To the Halls of the Montezumas: The Mexican War in the American Imagination
(New York, 1987), 144–45.

7
. Quoted in Edwin T. Greninger, "Tennesseans Abroad in 1851–1852,"
Tennessee Historical Quarterly
49 (Summer 1990), 81–82. See also Reginald C. Stuart,
United States Expansionism and British North America
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1988), 148–66.

8
. Gara,
Pierce,
57–59.

9
. Paul H. Bergeron,
The Presidency of James K. Polk
(Lawrence, Kans., 1987), 218–19.

10
. Quoted in Ralph Davis Jr., "Diplomatic Plumage: American Court Dress in the Early National Period,"
American Quarterly
20, no. 2 (1968), 175–79; Gara,
Pierce,
58–59.

11
. Norman E. Saul,
Distant Friends: The United States and Russia, 1763–1867
(Lawrence, Kans., 1991), 253.

12
. Weeks,
Continental Empire,
59–62.

13
. The classic study, an intellectual history, remains Albert K. Weinberg,
Manifest Destiny: A Study of Nationalist Expansionism in American History
(Baltimore, Md., 1935). Other major works include Frederick Merk,
Manifest Destiny and Mission in American History: A Reinterpretation
(New York, 1966), Thomas R. Hietala,
Manifest Design: Anxious Aggrandizement in Jacksonian America
(Ithaca, N.Y., 1985), and Anders Stephanson,
Manifest Destiny—American Expansion and the Empire of Right
(New York, 1995).

14
. Reginald Horsman,
Race and Manifest Destiny
(Cambridge, Mass., 1981), 301.

15
. Richard P. McCormick,
The Second American Party System
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1966); Ronald P. Formisano,
The Birth of Mass Political Parties, Michigan, 1827–1861
(Princeton, N.J., 1971); Michael F. Holt,
Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the American Civil War
(New York, 1999).

16
. Michael A. Morrison, "Westward the Curse of Empire: Texas Annexation and the American Whig Party,"
Journal of the Early Republic
10 (Summer 1990), 226–29; Hietala,
Manifest Design,
95–131, 196.

17
. Morrison, "Westward," 230–33; Norma Lois Peterson,
The Presidencies of William Henry Harrison and John Tyler
(Lawrence, Kans., 1989), 138. See also Major Wilson,
Space, Time, and Freedom: The Quest for Nationality and the Irrepressible Conflict
(Westport, Conn., 1974).

18
. Edward P. Crapol, "The Foreign Policy of Anti-slavery, 1833–1846," in Lloyd C. Gardner, ed.,
Redefining the Past: Essays in Diplomatic History in Honor of William Apple-man Williams
(Corvallis, Ore., 1986), 88–102.

19
. Hietala,
Manifest Design,
30–32. For a sampling of slaveholder fear mongering, see Edmund P. Gaines to Calhoun, May 5, 1844, in Clyde Wilson, ed.,
The Papers of John C. Calhoun,
vol. 18 (Columbia, S.C., 1989), 440–44, Calhoun to Ana Maria Calhoun Clemson, May 16, 1844, ibid., 469, Calhoun to William King, August 12, 1844, ibid., vol. 19 (Columbia, S.C., 1990), 574–75, Robert M. Harrison to Calhoun, August 12, 1844, ibid., 634–36, and Wilson introduction to ibid., xiii–xviii.

20
. Hietala,
Manifest Design,
passim.

21
. Stuart,
United States Expansionism,
85–99.

22
. Ibid., 126–47; Howard Jones and Donald A. Rakestraw,
Prologue to Manifest Destiny: Anglo-American Relations in the 1840s
(Wilmington, Del., 1997), 21–41; Scott Kaufman and John A. Soares Jr., " 'Sagacious Beyond Praise'? Winfield Scott and Anglo-American-Canadian Border Diplomacy, 1837–1860,"
Diplomatic History
30 (January 2006), 58–66.

23
. Jones and Rakestraw,
Prologue,
8–11, Kaufman and Soares, "Scott," 66–71.

24
. Jones and Rakestraw,
Prologue,
81–89.

25
. Quoted in ibid., 105.

26
. Ibid., 114.

27
. Charles S. Campbell,
From Revolution to Rapprochement: The United States and Great Britain, 1783–1900
(New York, 1974), 62; Stuart,
United States Expansionism,
101–2; Jones and Rakestraw,
Prologue,
149. The standard account is Howard Jones,
To the Webster-Ashburton Treaty: A Study in Anglo-American Relations, 1783–1843
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1977). See also Francis M. Carroll,
A Good and Wise Measure; The Search for the Canadian-American Boundary, 1783–1842
(Toronto, 2001).

28
. Peterson,
Harrison and Tyler,
136–37.

29
. Calhoun to Pakenham, September 3, 1844, in Wilson,
Calhoun Papers
19:705.

30
. The "reannexation" of Texas suggested, wrongly, that Texas had once belonged to the United States but had been carelessly squandered in the 1819 treaty with Spain.

31
. Bergeron,
Polk,
45; Hietala,
Manifest Design,
249.

32
. Jones and Rakestraw,
Prologue,
235. Daniel Walker Howe,
What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1845
(New York, 2007), 715–22, argues that Polk took a hard line on Oregon to gain northern Democrats' support for a tough stance with Mexico.