The Creation of Inequality: How Our Prehistoric Ancestors Set the Stage for Monarchy, Slavery, and Empire (95 page)

392   Oral exams for Maya officeholders are discussed in Daniel G. Brinton, ed.,
The Maya Chronicles
(Library of Aboriginal American Literature, Philadelphia, 1882); also see Ralph L. Roys,
The Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel
(University of Oklahoma Press, 1967); Joyce Marcus,
Mesoamerican Writing Systems
(Princeton University Press, 1992).

CHAPTER 19: THE LAND OF THE SCORPION KING

394   George B. Cressey, in
Crossroads: Land and Life in Southwest Asia
(J. B. Lippincott, New York, 1960), provides a useful description of Egypt before the Aswan High Dam changed the Nile environment.

395   Wadi Or is discussed by W. E. Wendt in “Two Prehistoric Archeological Sites in Egyptian Nubia,”
Postilla
102: 1–46 (Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, 1966).

395   Jack R. Harlan, “The Tropical African Cereals,” in David R. Harris and Gordon C. Hillman, eds.,
Foraging and Farming: The Evolution of Plant Exploitation
(Unwin Hyman, London, 1989), 335–343; Wilma Wetterstrom, “Foraging and Farming in Egypt: The Transition from Hunting and Gathering to Horticulture in the Egyptian Nile Valley,” in Thurstan Shaw et al., eds.,
The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns
(Routledge, London, 1993), 165–226.

395   Gertrude Caton-Thompson and Elinor W. Gardner,
The Desert Fayum
(The Royal Anthropological Institute, London, 1934); Robert J. Wenke, Janet E. Long, and Paul E. Buck, “Epipaleolithic and Neolithic Subsistence and Settlement in the Fayyum Oasis of Egypt,”
Journal of Field Archaeology
15 (1988): 29–51. New work on the Fayum sites by Willeke Wendrich and René Cappers was reported by John Noble Wilford, “5200
B.C.
Is New Date for Farms in Egypt,”
New York Times,
February 12, 2008.

396   Fred Wendorf, Romuald Schild, and Angela E. Close, eds.,
Cattle-Keepers of the Eastern Sahara: The Neolithic of Bir Kiseiba
(Department of Anthropology and Center for the Study of Earth and Man, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, 1984).

396   Fred Wendorf, Angela E. Close, and Romuald Schild, “Prehistoric Settlements in the Nubian Desert,”
American Scientist
73 (1985): 132–141; Fred Wendorf and Romuald Schild, “Nabta Playa and Its Role in Northeastern African Prehistory,”
Journal of Anthropological Archaeology
17 (1998): 97–123.

397   Daniel G. Bradley and David A. Magee, “Genetics and the Origins of Domestic Cattle,” in Melinda A. Zeder, Daniel G. Bradley, Eve Emshwiller, and Bruce D. Smith, eds.,
Documenting Domestication: New Genetic and Archaeological Paradigms
(University of California Press, 2006), 317–328.

397   Herman Kees, in
Ancient Egypt
(Phoenix Books/University of Chicago Press, 1977), discusses Nun, Sothis, nilometers, and the Egyptian cosmos.

397   Pliny the Elder,
The Natural History of Pliny, vol. 5,
translated by John Bostock and Henry T. Riley (H. G. Bohn, London, 1856).

398   William C. Hayes, in
Most Ancient Egypt
(University of Chicago Press, 1965), provides a pioneering comparison of early Upper and Lower Egypt. See more recent papers by Kathryn A. Bard, “The Egyptian Predynastic: A Review of the Evidence,”
Journal of Field Archaeology
21 (1994): 265–288; Robert J. Wenke, “The Evolution of Early Egyptian Civilization: Issues and Evidence,”
Journal of World Prehistory
5 (1991): 279–329; Stephen H. Savage, “Some Recent Trends in the Archaeology of Predynastic Egypt,”
Journal of Archaeological Research
9 (2001): 101–155.

399   Hermann Junker, “Bericht über die von der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien nach dem Westdelta entsendete Expedition,”
Denkschrift Akademie Wissenschaft Philosophische-Historische Klasse
3 (1928): 14–24; Josef Eiwanger,
Merimde-Benisalâme,
vols. 1–3 (Archäologische Veröffentlichungen 59, Mainz am Rhein, Germany, 1984–1992).

399   Oswald Menghin and Moustafa Amer,
Excavations of the Egyptian University in the Neolithic Site at Maadi: First Preliminary Report
(Cairo University, Cairo, 1932); Oswald Menghin,
Excavations of the Egyptian University in the Neolithic Site at Maadi: Second Preliminary Report
(Cairo University, Cairo, 1936); Isabella Caneva, Marcella Frangipane, and Alba Palmieri, “Predynastic Egypt: New Data from Maadi,”
African Archaeological Review
5 (1987): 105–114.

400   The subterranean houses of Shiqmim are described in Thomas E. Levy, ed.,
The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land
(Leicester University Press, London, 1995), 226–244, and in Thomas E. Levy, “Shiqmim 1,”
BAR International Series
356 (Archaeopress, Oxford, 1987).

400   Edwin C. M. van den Brink and Thomas E. Levy, eds., in
Egypt and the Levant: Interrelations from the 4th through the Early 3rd Millennium
B.C.E.
(Leicester University Press, London, 2002), describe Egypt’s interactions with Canaan (Israel-Jordan-Palestine), beginning as early as Ma’adi and Shiqmim.

400   Site H in Gaza is discussed by Ram Gophna in “The Contacts between Besor Oasis and Southern Canaan and Egypt during the Late Predynastic and the Threshold of the First Dynasty: A Further Assessment,” in Edwin C. M. van den Brink, ed.,
The Archaeology of the Nile Delta: Problems and Priorities
(Netherlands Foundation for Archaeological Research in Egypt, Amsterdam), 385–394.

400   The copper source used by Ma’adi is discussed by Andreas Hauptmann in
The Archaeometallurgy of Copper: Evidence from Faynan, Jordan
(Springer, New York, 2007), and in “The Earliest Periods of Copper Metallurgy in Feinan, Jordan,” in Andreas Hauptmann, Ernst Pernicka, and Günther A. Wagner, eds.,
Old World Archaeometallurgy: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held in Heidelberg 1987
(Selbstverlag des Deutschen Bergbau-Museums, Bochum, Germany, 1989), 119–135.

400   Stine Rossel et al., “Domestication of the Donkey: Timing, Processes, and Indicators,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
105 (2008): 3715–3720.

400   The cemeteries at Ma’adi are discussed in William C. Hayes,
Most Ancient Egypt
(1965), and in Michael A. Hoffman,
Egypt before the Pharaohs: The Prehistoric Foundations of Egyptian Civilization
(Michael O’Mara Books, London, 1991).

401   Guy Brunton and Gertrude Caton-Thompson, in
The Badarian Civilisation and Prehistoric Remains near Badari
(British School of Archaeology in Egypt, London, 1928), describe Hemamieh.

401   Fekri A. Hassan, “Predynastic of Egypt,”
Journal of World Prehistory
2 (1988): 135–185.

402   Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie and James E. Quibell,
Naqada and Ballas
(British School of Archaeology in Egypt, London, 1896); Fekri A. Hassan et al., “Agricultural Developments in the Naqada Region during the Predynastic Period,”
Nyame Akuma
17 (1980): 28–33.

402   The cemeteries at Naqada were dug by Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie and James E. Quibell (see their
Naqada and Ballas
) and have been restudied by Kathryn A. Bard,
From Farmers to Pharaohs: Mortuary Evidence for the Rise of Complex Society in Egypt
(Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield, 1994).

402   See chapter 1 in Barry J. Kemp,
Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization
(Routledge, London, 1989).

404   Michael A. Hoffman, Hany A. Hamroush, and Ralph O. Allen, “A Model of Urban Development for the Hierakonpolis Region from Predynastic through Old Kingdom Times,”
Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt
23 (1986): 175–187.

405   James E. Quibell and Frederick W. Green, in
Hierakonpolis, vols. I, II
(Bernard Quaritch, London, 1900–1902), discuss the Rosette Scorpion macehead found at Hierakonpolis.

405   Tomb 11 at Hierakonpolis is discussed in Barbara Adams, “Excavations in the Locality 6 Cemetery at Hierakonpolis 1979–1985,”
BAR International Series
903 (Archaeopress, Oxford, 2000).

405   Günter Dreyer describes Tomb U-j at Abydos in “Recent Discoveries at Abydos Cemetery U,” in Edwin C. M. van den Brink, ed.,
The Nile Delta in Transition, 4th–3rd Millennium BC
(Israel Exploration Society, Tel Aviv, 1992), 293–299, and in “Umm el-Qaab: Nachuntersuchungen im Frühzeitlichen Königsfriedhof 5./6. Bericht,”
Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäeologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo
49 (1993): 23–62.

406   James E. Quibell and Frederick W. Green, in
Hierakonpolis,
discuss the Narmer Palette found at Hierakonpolis. See also Toby A. H. Wilkinson, “What a King Is This: Narmer and the Concept of the Ruler,”
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
86 (2000): 23–32.

408   Thomas E. Levy, Edwin C. M. van den Brink, Yuval Goren, and David Alon, “New Light on King Narmer and the Protodynastic Egyptian Presence in Canaan,”
Biblical Archaeologist
58 (1995): 26–35; Thomas E. Levy et al., “Egyptian-Canaanite Interaction at Nahal Tillah, Israel (ca. 4500–3000
B.C.E.
): An Interim Report on the 1994–1995 Excavations,”
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
307 (1997): 1–51.

408   Since Egyptian kingship traditionally began with Dynasty 1, it was necessary for archaeologists to create a Dynasty 0 (3150–3050
B.C.
) to accommodate earlier rulers such as Scorpion and Narmer. Also see Ian Shaw, ed.,
The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt
(Oxford University Press, 2000); Peter A. Clayton,
Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt
(Thames and Hudson, London, 1994).

409   Manetho’s 30 dynasties (the framework still in use for Egyptian chronology) are given in William G. Waddell,
Manetho
(Harvard University Press, 1940), and in Sir Alan Gardiner,
Egypt of the Pharaohs: An Introduction
(Oxford University Press, 1978).

410   Discussions of the Egyptian deities and their pantheon can be found in Henri Frankfort,
Ancient Egyptian Religion: An Interpretation
(Harper & Row, New York, 1961); Byron E. Shafer, ed.,
Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths, and Personal Practice
(Cornell University Press, 1991); Siegfried Morenz,
Egyptian Religion
(Cornell University Press, 1992); Stephen Quirke,
Ancient Egyptian Religion
(British Museum Press, London, 1992).

410   For good discussions of the
ka,
the
ba,
and the
akh,
see Henri Frankfort,
Kingship and the Gods: A Study of Ancient Near Eastern Religion as the Integration of Society and Nature
(University of Chicago Press, 1948); James P. Allen et al., eds.,
Religion and Philosophy in Ancient Egypt
(Department of Near Eastern Languages, Yale University, 1989); A. Jeffrey Spencer,
Death in Ancient Egypt
(Penguin Books, New York, 1982); Stephen Quirke,
Ancient Egyptian Religion
(see previous reference).

411   Several sources discuss Imhotep, the architect who designed Zoser’s Step Pyramid, a feat so important that he was later deified; see Mark Lehner,
The Complete Pyramids: Solving the Ancient Mysteries
(Thames and Hudson, London, 1997); I. E. S. Edwards,
The Pyramids of Egypt
(Viking Press, New York, 1986); Kathryn A. Bard,
An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt
(Blackwell, Malden, Mass., 2008).

411   Mark Lehner,
The Complete Pyramids;
I. E. S. Edwards,
The Pyramids of Egypt
(see previous reference).

411   The work gangs that built the pyramids are discussed in Ann M. Roth, “Egyptian Phyles in the Old Kingdom: The Evolution of a System of Social Organization,”
Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization
48 (Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, 1991). See also Christopher J. Eyre, “Work and the Organization of Work in the Old Kingdom,” in Marvin A. Powell, ed.,
Labor in the Ancient Near East
(American Oriental Society, New Haven, Conn., 1987).

412   Overviews of bureaucratic offices in the Egyptian state can be found in Sir Alan Gardiner,
Egypt of the Pharaohs
(see previous reference); Klaus Baer,
Rank and Title in the Old Kingdom
(University of Chicago Press, 1960); Barbara S. Lesko, “Rank, Roles, and Rights,” in Leonard H. Lesko, ed.,
Pharaoh’s Workers: The Villagers of Deir El Medina
(Cornell University Press, 1994), 15–39; Jaroslav
Č
zerný,
A Community of Workmen at Thebes in the Ramesside Period
(Bibliotheque d’Etude Institut Français, Archeologie Orientale, Cairo, 1973).

412   How Uni worked his way up the bureaucratic ladder of success is discussed in James Henry Breasted,
Ancient Records of Egypt,
5 vols. (University of Chicago Press, 1906–1907); also see Henri Frankfort,
Ancient Egyptian Religion
(see previous reference).

413   Tokens for bread are discussed and illustrated in Barry J. Kemp,
Ancient Egypt
(see previous reference). For a study of the barracks where pyramid workers resided, see Mark Lehner, “Of Gangs and Graffiti: How Ancient Egyptians Organized Their Labor Force,”
Aeragram
7 (2004): 11–13 (Newsletter of the Ancient Egypt Research Associates, Cambridge, Mass.).

415   Leslie A. White, “Ikhnaton: The Great Man vs. The Culture Process,”
Journal of the American Oriental Society
68 (1948): 91–114.

416   There are countless books about King Tut’s tomb. Among them are Carl Nicholas Reeves,
The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, The Tomb, The Royal Treasure
(Thames and Hudson, London, 1990); Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt,
Tutankhamen: Life and Death of a Pharaoh,
4th printing (New York Graphic Society, New York, 1978); and the report of the discoverer of the tomb, Howard Carter,
The Tomb of Tut-ankh-Amen,
3 vols. (Cassell, New York, 1923–1933).