The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia (68 page)

1
Sergei Eisenstein,
Ivan the Terrible, Part One,
1944.

2
Roy Medvedev,
Let History Judge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism,
trans. Colleen Taylor (London: Spokesman, 1976), 151.

3
Nikita Khrushchev,
The “Secret” Speech: Delivered to the Closed Session of the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
(Nottingham: Spokesman, 1976), 70.

4
Edvard Radzinsky,
Stalin: The First Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia’s Secret Archives,
trans. H. T. Willets (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1996), 3-4.

5
Milovan Djilas,
Conversations with Stalin,
trans. Michael Petrovich (London: Hart-Davis, 1962), 136, 145-46.

6
Ibid., 97; Lev Razgon,
True Stories,
trans. John Crowfoot (London: Souvenir Press, 1998), 18.

7
Valentin Berezhkov interview, May 6, 1997, Hoover Institution, Stanford, Calif.; Radzinsky,
Stalin,
518.

8
Nikita Khrushchev,
Khrushchev Remembers,
trans. Strobe Talbott (London: Andre Deutsch, 1971), 307.

9
Valentin M. Berezhkov,
At Stalin’s Side: His Interpreter’s Memoirs from the October Revolution to the Fall of the Dictator’s Empire,
trans. Sergei V. Mikheyev (New York: Birch Lane Press, 1994), 318.

10
Richard Hottelet, “Soviet Union Can’t Be Trusted or Appeased, Diplomat Litvinov Warned Western World,”
Washington Post,
Jan. 1952.

11
Pavel Sudoplatov,
Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness—a Soviet Spymaster
(London: Little, Brown, 1994), 306.

12
Khrushchev,
The “Secret” Speech,
63.

13
Valentin Berezhkov interview, May 6, 1997, Hoover Institution, Stanford, Calif.

14
Edmund Stevens,
This Is Russia Uncensored
(New York: Didier, 1950), 167.

15
Vadim J. Birstein,
The Perversion of Knowledge: The True Story of Soviet Science
(Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2001), 64.

16
The Death of Stalin,
NBC documentary film, Jan. 27, 1963, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland; Valentin Berezhkov interview, May 6, 1997, Hoover Institution, Stanford, Calif.

17
Anton Antonov-Ovseyenko,
The Time of Stalin: Portrait of a Tyranny,
trans. George Saunders (New York: Harper and Row, 1981), 294.

18
Sudoplatov,
Special Tasks,
327.

19
Radzinsky,
Stalin,
533; Birstein,
The Perversion of Knowledge,
61.

20
Svetlana Alliluyeva,
Twenty Letters to a Friend,
trans. Priscilla Johnson (London: Penguin, 1968), 28.

21
Ibid., 171; Svetlana Alliluyeva,
Only One Year,
trans. Paul Chavchavadze (London: Hutchinson, 1969), 156.

22
Thomas Sgovio,
Dear America
(Kenmore, N.Y.: Partners’ Press, 1979), 282.

23
Sheila Fitzpatrick,
Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times; Soviet Russia in the 1930s
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 184.

24
John Noble,
I Was a Slave in Russia
(London: Brown Watson, 1963), 125.

25
Sgovio,
Dear America,
283.

26
Alliluyeva,
Twenty Letters to a Friend,
17.

27
Robert A. Ford,
Our Man in Moscow: A Diplomat’s Reflections on the Soviet Union
(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989), 23.

28
Robert Robinson,
Black on Red: My Forty-four Years Inside the Soviet Union
(Washington, D.C.: Acropolis, 1988), 266.

29
Ibid., 267.

30
Ibid., 269.

31
Telegram sent by Beam, March 9, 1953, and letter from Beam to Malik, March 6, 1953, Moscow embassy, Confidential File 1953, Box 178, RG 84, National Archives II.

32
The Times
of India, March 8, 1953; Paul Robeson, “To You, Beloved Comrade,”
New World Review,
April 1953, 11-13, from Robeson,
Paul Robeson Speaks,
ed. Philip S. Foner (London: Quartet, 1978), 348-49.

33
Zhores Medvedev and Roy Medvedev, introduction to Khrushchev,
The “Secret” Speech,
12.

34
Roy Medvedev and Zhores Medvedev,
Khrushchev: The Years in Power,
trans. Andrew R. Durkin (London: Oxford University Press, 1977), 10-11; Khrushchev,
Khrushchev Remembers,
338; Medvedev,
Let History Judge,
368; Robinson,
Black on Red,
274; Dan Richardson,
Moscow
(London: Rough Guides, 1995), 154.

35
Radzinsky,
Stalin,
561. Roy Medvedev,
Khrushchev,
trans. Brian Pearce (Oxford: Blackwell, 1982), 67; TFR 376-1a, Alekandr Syrtsov, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

36
Medvedev and Medvedev, introduction to Khrushchev,
The “Secret” Speech,
12; Moscow Embassy Confidential File, 1954, Box 191, RG 84, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland; Sudoplatov,
Special Tasks,
366; Memorial Society, Russian State Archive of Sociopolitical History, State Archive of the Russian Federation; N. V. Petrov and K. V. Skorkin,
Who Headed the NKVD, 1934-1941,
ed. N. G. Okhotin and A. B. Roginskii (Moscow: 1999).

37
Noble,
I Was a Slave in Russia,
128.

38
Ibid., 139.

39
Ibid., 142.

40
Alexander Dolgun, with Patrick Watson,
Alexander Dolgun’s Story: An American in the Gulag
(London: Collins/Harvill, 1975), 287-89.

41
Alexander Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago, 1918-1956: An Experiment in Literary Investigation,
vol. 3 trans. Thomas Whitney (London: Fontana, 1976), 320-31; Geoffrey Hosking,
A History of the Soviet Union
(London: Fontana, 1985), 331.

42
Mikhail Mikhaeev (dir.),
Kolyma,
documentary film, Hoover Institution, Stanford, Calif.

43
Bruno Bettelheim,
Surviving and Other Essays
(London: Thames and Hudson, 1979), 95. The idea of the “two tragedies of the twentieth century” is from Milan Kundera.

44
Lev Razgon,
True Stories,
trans. John Crowfoot (London: Souvenir Press, 1998), 338.

45
Victor Herman,
Coming Out of the Ice: An Unexpected Life
(New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979), 317-33.

46
Thomas Sgovio NKVD File, Hoover Institution, Stanford, Calif.

47
Ibid.

48
Interview with Evgeny Bernadovich Chen by Lyuba Vinogradova, Moscow, March 31, 2006.

49
Boris Pasternak,
Doctor Zhivago,
trans. Max Hayward and Manya Harari (London: Collins/Harvill, 1988), 449.

50
Sgovio,
Dear America,
121.

1
Varlam Shalamov,
Graphite,
trans. John Glad (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 281; Nanci Adler,
The Gulag Survivor: Beyond the Soviet System
(New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 2002), 64.

2
Thomas Sgovio,
Dear America
(Kenmore, N.Y.: Partners’ Press, 1979), 284; Andrei Sinyavsky,
Soviet Civilization: A Cultural History,
trans. Joanne Turnbull and Nikolai Formozov (New York: Arcade, 1990), 24; Geoffrey Hosking,
A History of the Soviet Union
(London: Fontana, 1985), 342.

3
Joseph Berger,
Shipwreck of a Generation: The Memoirs of Joseph Berger
(London: Harvill, 1971), 243.

4
Richard Lourie,
Russia Speaks: An Oral History from the Revolution to the Present
(New York: E. Burlingame, 1991), 188.

5
Pavel Sudoplatov,
Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness—a Soviet Spymaster
(London: Little, Brown, 1994), 419.

6
Adler,
The Gulag Survivor,
172.

7
Varlam Shalamov,
Kolyma Tales,
trans. John Glad (New York: W. W. Norton, 1980), 72-73.

8
Leona Toker,
Return from the Archipelago: Narratives of Gulag Survivors
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), 150.

9
Vitaly Shentalinsky,
The KGB’s Literary Archive: The Discovery and Ultimate Fate of Russia’s Suppressed Writers,
trans. John Crowfoot (London: Harvill Press, 1995), 136-38.

10
Vadim J. Birstein,
The Perversion of Knowledge: The True Story of Soviet Science
(Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2001), 241; Bruno Bettelheim,
Surviving and Other Essays
(London: Thomas and Hudson, 1979), 71.

11
David J. Dallin and Boris I. Nicolaevsky,
Forced Labor in Soviet Russia
(London: Hollis and Carter, 1948), 144.

12
Geoffrey Hosking,
A History of the Soviet Union
(London: Fontana, 1985), 342-43.

13
Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History, Moscow, RGASPI, fond 17, opis 127, delo 1129, listy 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 59.

14
Birstein,
The Perversion of Knowledge,
184.

15
Alexander Dolgun, with Patrick Watson,
Alexander Dolgun’s Story: An American in the Gulag
(London: Collins/Harvill, 1975), 327-41.

16
Ibid., 337.

17
Sept. 25, 1956, from American embassy, Vienna, Dispatch 265, 261.1111/9-2566, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

18
Alyce Alex had been released only to be rearrested in August 1949; 261.0022/9-656, RG. 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland. Dora Gershonowitz, too, survived her sentence and was reported to have arrived in Moscow at her mother’s house on November 3, 1959. Her relatives in America were still attempting to obtain an exit visa for her to the United States (251.1111 Geroshonowitz, Dora. RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland. The State Department, meanwhile, had published another memo, in July 1954, titled “US Citizens in the USSR and Its Eastern European Satellites,” which reported the number of Americans held behind the Iron Curtain at 4,766.
The New York Times
editorial “The Other Prisoners” quoted the same source to comment that “several times that number” were also regarded as “possible claimants” to United States citizenship (611.61251/ 7-2354, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland; “The Other Prisoners,”
New York Times,
Jan. 5, 1954).

19
261.1111/8-1056, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

20
Sept. 30, 1943; quoted in 310, Koppelman, RG 59, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

21
Zhores Medvedev and Roy Medvedev, introduction to Nikita Khrushchev,
The “Secret” Speech: Delivered to the Closed Session of the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
(Nottingham: Spokesman, 1976), 9-10.

22
Khrushchev,
The “Secret” Speech,
46.

23
Irving Howe and Lewis Coser,
The American Communist Party: A Critical History, 1919-1957
(Boston: Beacon Press, 1957), 491.

24
Roy Medvedev,
Khrushchev,
trans. Brian Pearce (Oxford: Blackwell, 1982), 99; Adler,
The Gulag Survivor,
23-24, 177.

25
Nikita Khrushchev, quoted in Adler,
The Gulag Survivor,
89.

26
Boris Pasternak,
Doctor Zhivago,
trans. Max Hayward and Manya Harari (London: Fontana, 1985).

27
Mayme Sevander, with Laurie Hertzel,
They Took My Father: A Story of Idealism and Betrayal
(Duluth: Pfeifer-Hamiton, 1992), 175-84.

28
Sgovio,
Dear America,
284-86.

29
Sept. 18, 1959, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958-1960, Vol X, Part 1:11—Soviet Union.

30
Victor Reuther, “Commitment and Betrayal: Foreign Workers at the Gorky Auto-Works,” ed. Paul T. Christensen (unpublished, 2004), 191, 66; Victor Reuther,
The Brothers Reuther and the Story of the UAW: A Memoir
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976), 396-98.

31
Nikita Khrushchev,
Nations Should Live as Good Neighbours! : Khrushchev’s Address on United States Television, Washington, D.C., Sept. 27, 1959
(London: Soviet Booklets, 1959), 1-19.

32
Nikita Khrushchev,
Khrushchev Remembers,
trans. Strobe Talbott (London: André Deutsch, 1971), 417.

33
“Investigation of the Unauthorized Use of United States Passports, Part 3,” Hearings Before the Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, Eighty-Fourth Congress, Second Session, June 12, 1956, Washington, D.C., 1956, 4492-510; quoted from Paul Robeson,
Paul Robeson Speaks,
ed. Philip S. Foner (London: Quartet, 1978), 413-33.

34
Paul Robeson FBI file, FBI Reading Room, Washington, D.C.; New York
World Telegram,
Dec. 23, 1963; Sterling Stuckey,
New York Times Book Review,
quoted in Rob Nagel, “Biography: Paul Robeson,”
Contemporary Musicians
8, Sept. 1992.

35
“Davies Reply to Gossip Is ‘I Am a Capitalist,’”
Milwaukee Journal,
May 29, 1952.

36
Elizabeth Kimball MacLean,
Joseph E. Davies: Envoy to the Soviets
(Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1992), 181.

37
“Walter Duranty, Newsman, 73, Dies,”
New York Times,
Oct. 4, 1957; Carl Blumay and Henry Edwards,
The Dark Side of Power: The Real Armand Hammer
(New York : Simon and Schuster, 1992), 48.

38
Norman D. Markowitz,
The Rise and Fall of the People’s Century: Henry A. Wallace and American Liberalism, 1941-1948
(New York: Free Press, 1973), 309-23; Graham White and John Maze,
Henry Wallace: His Search for a New World Order
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 296.

39
Henry Wallace interview with Dean Albertson, Nov. 1950-May 1951, 11, 3657, Columbia University Oral History Collection, Columbia University, New York.

40
The International Jew: The World’s Foremost Problem
,
Being a Reprint of a Series of Articles Appearing in the Dearborn Independent from May 22 to Oct 2, 1920,
published by the Dearborn Publishing Co., Dearborn, Michigan, distributed by Ford Motor Company. Henry Ford’s FBI file cited evidence produced in a German court in 1923 that Ford had also contributed funds to Adolf Hitler’s fledging Nazi Party. Winifred Wagner, the daughter-in-law of the Nazis’ favorite composer and confidante of Hitler, recalled a conversation she had with Ford on a visit to Dearborn in January 31, 1932: “Ford told me that he had helped finance Hitler with money from the sales of automobiles and trucks that he had sent to Germany.” It helps to explain why Adolf Hitler, when interviewed by a journalist from
The New York Times
at his Munich headquarters in 1922, had a portrait of Henry Ford hanging behind his desk. Ford was decorated by Hitler and praised by name in the first edition of
Mein Kampf.
See Carol Gelderman,
Henry Ford: Wayward Capitalist
(New York: Dial Press, 1981), 223-26; Henry Ford FBI file, FBI Reading Room, Washington, D.C.; Niven Busch, Jr.,
Twenty-One Americans: Being Profiles of Some People Famous in Our Time
(Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran, 1930), 4.

41
Carol Gelderman,
Henry Ford: Wayward Capitalist
(New York: Dial Press, 1981), 398; “Recorded conversation between Comrade I. V. Stalin and Chairman of the Trade Chamber of the USA E. Johnston,” June 26, 1944, from Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History, Moscow, RGASPI, fond 558, opis 11, delo 374, listy 68-75.

42
Charles Sorensen,
My Forty Years with Ford
(New York: Collier, 1956), 18.

43
Victor Herman,
Coming Out of the Ice: An Unexpected Life
(New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979), 347;
New York Times,
May 30, 1977.

44
Molly Ivins, “A Former American Exile Awaits Daughter’s Arrival from Russia,”
New York Times,
May 30, 1977; Herman,
Coming Out of the Ice,
49;
New York Times,
June 14, 1978; Frank J. Prial, “Ex Soviet Worker Is Rebuffed,”
New York Times,
June 14, 1985; “Victor Herman, Exile in Soviet,”
New York Times,
March 29, 1985.

45
Craig Whitney, “From Idealism to Misery,”
New York Times,
Dec. 10, 1977; Dan Fisher, “Soviet Utopia of 1931 Now a Prison for Embittered American,”
Washington Post,
Sept. 1, 1977; John Gilardi, “American Jew Returns for Visit After 58 Years in Soviet Union,”
New York Times,
July 5, 1989;
New York Times,
Dec. 25, 1986;
New York Times,
July 5, 1989; Jack Norworth, “Take Me Out to the Ball Game,” 1908.

46
Interview with Evgeny Bernadovich Chen by Lyuba Vinogradova, Moscow, March 31, 2006.

47
Geoffrey Hosking,
A History of the Soviet Union
(London: Fontana, 1985), 343.

48
Transcript of the Interrogation of Andrey Sinyavsky, Andrei Sinyavsky,
On Trial: The Case of Sinyavsky (Tertz) and Daniel (Arzhak),
Documents ed. and trans. Leopold Labedz and Max Hayward (London: Collins/Harvill, 1967), 205.

49
Hannah Arendt,
The Origins of Totalitarianism
(New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovitch, 1951), 465.

50
Khrushchev,
Khrushchev Remembers,
3.

51
Mikhail Gorbachev,
Mikhail Gorbachev: Memoirs,
trans. Georges Peronansky and Tatjana Varsavsky (London: Doubleday, 1996), 13.