The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia (69 page)

1
Joseph Brodsky,
Collected Poems in English,
trans. Anthony Hecht (Manchester, U.K.: Carcanet, 2001), 64.

2
Remarks by President Bush and Russian President Boris Yeltsin concerning the U.S.-Russia Agreement on Nuclear Weapons, June 16, 1992, transcript provided by News Transcripts, Inc. Box 1, Theodore Karasik Collection, Hoover Institution, Stanford, Calif.

3
Dateline NBC,
June 16, 1992, News Transcripts, Inc., Box 1, Theodore Karasik Collection, Hoover Institution, Stanford, Calif.

4
President Bush and Russian President Boris Yeltsin News Conference, White House East Room, June 17, 1992, transcript provided by News Transcripts, Inc., Box 1, Theodore Karasik Collection, Hoover Institution, Stanford, Calif.

5
Task Force Russia Report, Nov. 1992, Box 2, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

6
Donna Downes Knox, “The Continuing Search for Answers in Russia,” Coalition of Families, PO Box 7152, Roanoke, Va.

7
Task Force Russia (POW/MIA), Analytical Report No.2, Box 2, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

8
Interview of Soviet general Fiodor Shinkarenko (ret.) with Jane Reynolds Howard, Riga, Latvia, Sept. 2, 1992, Box 2A, Defense POW MIA Office (DPMO), RG 330, National Archives, College Park, Maryland. Re Stalin’s personal files: “The most sensitive documents—including Stalin’s personal files—remain closed off in the ‘presidential archive,’ suggesting that the current authorities identify more with the secretive protection of national prestige than with full openness with the past.” Review by Robert V. Daniels of
Soviet History in the Yeltsin Era
by R.W. Davies,
Journal Modern History
71, no. 1 (March 1999), 269-70.

9
Final Report DPMO, Redacted copies from Box 2, Box 2A, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland;
Krasnaya Zvezda,
Feb. 13, 1993, “Angels from the Pentagon and the CIA: Why Are They Cherished in Russia?” Annex A to TFR, 6-19 Feb 1993, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

10
Task Force Report, Sept. 25, 1992, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

11
“1992-1996 Findings of the W WII Working Group,” 141, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

12
Figure for 2,836 Americans from State Archive of Russian Federation, Moscow, GARF, f.9414, o.1393, d.14, quoted in Thirteenth Plenary Session U.S.-Russia Joint Commission on POW/MIAs, Sept. 24, 1996, RG 330, National Archives, II, College Park, Maryland.

13
361.1121/12-1045, Dec. 10, 1946, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

14
Dr. Peterson, 11th Plenary Session, U.S.-Russian Joint Commission on POWs/MIAs, Dec. 7, 1994, Task Force Russia, Box 4, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

15
Donna Downes Knox, “On the Ground in Russia,” Coalition of Families, PO Box 7152, Roanoke, Va.; Task Force Russia (POW/MIA), Report to the U.S. Delegation, U.S.-Russian Joint Commission on POW/MIAs, March 12, 1993, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

16
“President Too Busy to Discuss Joint Commission Report with General Lajoie,” Aug. 2001, and “Background of Korean War-POW issue,” statements issued by Coalition of Families, Po Box 7152, Roanoke, Va.

17
MSGs AMEMBASSY TALLINN, 201020Z April 1993, and AMEMBASSY TALLINN 231223Z April 1993, Annex A to Task Force Russia Biweekly Report, April, 17-30 1993; Reports from U.S.-Russian Joint Commission, 1993, Box 3, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

18
“1992-1996 Findings of the WWII Working Group,” 145-46, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

19
Task Force Russia, Document No 382-3, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

20
Comprehensive Report, USRJC, June 17, 1996, 146-53, 13th Plenum U.S.-Russia Joint Commission on POW/MIA Affairs, Sept. 24-24, 1996, Moscow; 196 JCSD-AMEMBASSY Moscow, 011207Z June 1995, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland; James Brooke, “Americans in Soviet Jails,”
New York Times,
July 19, 1996.

21
Task Force Russia, Report, June 1993, Box 3, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

22
Transcript from interview in newspaper
Komsomolskaia Pravda,
quoted in Comprehensive Report, USRJC, June 17, 1996, 159, DPMO, Box 1, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

23
R241259A August 1992, Fm AmEmbassy Moscow, Subject: POW/MIA team interview with Colonel Korotkov, Annex C to Task Force Russia Biweekly Report, 17 March-16 March 1993, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

24
Task Force Russia (POW/MIA) Report to the U.S. Delegation, U.S.-Russian Joint Commission on POW/ MIAs, Sept. 25, 1992, RG 330; Comprehensive Report, USRJC, June 17, 1996, 163-67, DPMO, Box 1, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

25
Annex B to TFR Report for Jan. 29, 1993, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

26
The Gulag Study, Joint Commission Support Directorate, Gulag Research Group, Defense POW/Missing Personnel Office, Arlington, Va., Fourth Edition, June 22, 2002, 33.

27
Comprehensive Report, USRJC, June 17, 1996, DPMO, Box 1, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland; “U.S. Says Soviet Holds Americans of 2 Lost Planes,”
New York Times,
July 17, 1956; Draft Note to the U.S. Embassy from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Aug. 9, 1956, from Diane P. Koenker and Ronald D. Bachman (eds.),
Revelations from the Russian Archives: Documents in English Translation
(Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1997), 680.

28
Charlotte Busch Mitnik, “A Family Member’s Feelings,” Coalition of Families, PO Box 7152, Roanoke, Va.

29
TFR 185-121, Comprehensive Report, USRJC, June 17, 1996, DPMO, Box 1, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

30
Source Annex A to JCSB Triweekly report of the Period August 21-September 10, 1993, Task Force Russia, Report, June 1993 Box 3; Meeting of Co-Chairmen, U.S.-Russia Joint Commission on POW/MIAs, May 28, 2002, Moscow. DPMO, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

31
16th Plenum, 1999, Cold War Working Group, DPMO, Joint Commission Support Directorate Report Sept. 9-13, 2003, DPMO, RG 330, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

32
“56 Years Later, WW II Navy Bomber Found in Remote Russia,” Associated Press,
Honolulu-Star Bulletin,
Aug 14, 2000; Trip Report for TDY to Kamchatka, Russia, June 30-Sept 18, 2001, US-Russia Joint Commission on POW/MIAs, Department of Defense, Washington, D.C.

33
Amelia Gentleman, “Europe’s Last POW: The Man Locked Away for 56 Years,”
The Guardian,
Aug 3, 2000; Nick Thorpe, “POW Gets Life Back After 55 Years,”
The Guardian,
Sept 19, 2000.

34
Vitaly Vitaliev, “Echoes Can Still be Heard of the Tyranny of Fear,”
Moscow Times,
March 6, 2003.

35
“Thaw Brings Japan’s POWs Back,”
Moscow Times,
April 16, 1998; Tom Lantos, Speech to House of Representatives, Oct. 5, 1992; Adam Hochschild,
The Unquiet Ghost: Russians Remember Stalin
(New York: Viking, 1994), 275.

36
Report to the U.S. Delegation, U.S.-Russian Joint Commission on POWs/MIAs, Sept. 11, 1992, RG 330, National Archives II. In February 2005, the American investigator Norman Kass briefed the international press:
“I personally would be comfortable saying that the number [of Americans held in the gulags during the Cold War and Korean War] is in the hundreds.”
Quoted in “Official Says Hundreds of US Citizens Likely Died in Gulags,” CNN, Feb. 11, 2005.

37
Danz Blasser interview from “Secrets of the Lost Fighter Pilots,” documentary film broadcast on Channel 5 (U.K.), Dec.5, 2006.

38
Anna Politkovskaya,
Putin’s Russia,
trans. Arch Tait (London: Harvill Press, 2004), vii, 96-271, 283.

1
Alexander Blok,
Selected Poems,
trans. Jon Stallworthy and Peter France (Manchester: Carcanet Press, 2000), 111.

2
Russell Working, “Odessa: Last Breath of Soviet Liberty,”
Moscow Times,
Sept. 29, 2000; Martin J. Bollinger,
Stalin’s Slave Ships: Kolyma, the Gulag Fleet, and the Role of the West
(Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003), 43.

3
Descriptions of Kolyma based upon footage from George Kovach (dir.),
The Camps of Magadan,
documentary film, 1990, Hoover Institute, Stanford, Calif., and rushes courtesy of David Elkind, LiveWire Media, San Francisco.

4
Mikhail Mikhaeev (dir.),
Kolyma,
documentary film, Hoover Institution, Stanford, Calif.

5
Photographs from Nanci Adler,
Victims of Soviet Terror: The Story of the Memorial Movement
(Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1993).

6
“Gold and Human Rights,”
Wall Street Journal,
Aug. 28, 1985.

7
Adam Hochschild,
The Unquiet Ghost: Russians Remember Stalin
(New York: Viking, 1994), 255.

8
Adler,
Victims of Soviet Terror,
93; Hochschild,
The Unquiet Ghost,
198-99.

9
Ales Adamovich, “Look About You!” from Vitaly Korotich and Cathy Porter (eds.),
The Best of Ogonyok: The New Journalism of Glasnost
(London: Heinemann, 1990), 7.

10
Hochschild,
The Unquiet Ghost,
xxvi.

11
Edwin Bacon,
The Gulag at War: Stalin’s Forced Labour System in the Light of the Archives
(Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, with Centre for Russian and East European Studies, University of Birmingham, 1994), 30.

12
Adler,
Victims of Soviet Terror,
94.

13
John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr,
In Denial: Historians, Communism and Espionage
(San Francisco: Encounter, 2003), 117-18. Elmer John Nousiainen was
not
listed among the names of the dead buried in Sandormokh. The young man who had conveyed the news of the mass arrests of the American emigrants in Karelia—and was himself arrested outside the American embassy in Moscow in 1938—was sentenced to eight years in the Gulag. Remarkably, Elmer John Nousiainen survived his sentence, in part through his ability to play the saxophone in a Gulag camp orchestra. See Mayme Sevander,
Of Soviet Bondage
(Duluth, Minn.: Oscat, 1996), 111-12.

14
Source: Memo. Ru; Hochschild,
The Unquiet Ghost,
128; Edvard Radzinsky,
Stalin: The First Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia’s Archives,
trans. H. T. Willets (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1996), 345; Vitaly Shentalinsky,
The KGB’s Literary Archive,
trans. John Crowfoot (London: Harvill Press, 1995), 70.

15
Diane P. Koenker and Ronald D. Bachman (eds.),
Revelations from the Russian Archives: Documents in English Translation
(Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1997), 12.

16
Richard Pipes (ed.),
The Unknown Lenin: From the Secret Archives,
trans. Catherine A. Fitzpatrick (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1996), 56, 183; R. J. Rummel,
Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917
(New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1990), 1.

17
Leona Toker,
Return from the Archipelago: Narratives of Gulag Survivors
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), 3.

18
Literaturnaya gazeta,
Aug. 9, 1989, from Robert Conquest,
The Great Terror: A Reassessment
(London: Hutchinson, 1990), 487.

19
Bacon,
The Gulag at War,
36.

20
Felix Chuev (ed.),
Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics; Conversations with Felix Chuev
(Chicago: Ivan Dee, 1993), 307.

21
Ibid., 161, 237.

22
Ibid., 326.

23
Ibid., 198.

24
Radzinsky,
Stalin,
563.

25
Yuri Druzhnikov,
Informer 001: The Myth of Pavlik Morozov
(New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1997), 87-89, 95.

26
Vladimir Zazubrin, “The Chip: A Story About a Chip and About Her,” trans. Graham Roberts, from Oleg Chukhontsev (ed.),
Dissonant Voices: The New Russian Fiction
(London: Harvill, 1991), 54; Erika Gottlieb,
Dystopian Fiction East and West: Universe of Terror and Trial
(Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2001), 141.

27
Trudy Huskamp Peterson, “Access Matters: Four Documents,” Cold War History Conference, Sept. 25, 1998.

28
Immanuel Kant,
Religion Within the Boundaries of Mere Reason and Other Writings,
trans. and ed. Allen Wood and George Di Giovanni (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 54.

1
Osip Mandelstam,
The Moscow and Voronezh Notebooks: Poems, 1930-1937,
trans. Richard and Elizabeth McKane (Tarset: Bloodaxe, 2003), 79.

2
Tom Bukham,
Buffalo News,
Nov. 9, 1997.

3
“Thomas Sgovio, Ex-Soviet Prisoner and Noted Buffalo Artist, Dies at 80,”
The Buffalo News,
July 5, 1997.

4
George Kovach (dir.),
The Camps of Magadan,
documentary film, Hoover Institute, Stanford, Calif.; Thomas Sgovio interview with George Kovacs, tapes courtesy of David Elkind, LiveWire Media, San Francisco.

5
Chuck Hawley, “Stalin’s Horrors Recalled,”
The Arizona Republic,
Aug. 23, 1995.

6
Thomas Sgovio NKVD file, Hoover Institution, Stanford, Calif.

7
Alan Cullinson, “A Secret Revealed,” Associated Press, Nov. 9, 1997.