The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (127 page)

69.
De Gaulle’s attitude toward the Anglo-Saxon powers is superbly brought out in F. Kersaudy,
Churchill and de Gaulle
(London, 1981), as well as in de Gaulle’s own
Memoires de Guerre
, 3 vols. (Paris, 1954–59). For French colonial policy during and after the war, see L. von Albertini,
Decolonization
(New York, 1971 edn.), pp. 358ff; and—with British comparisons—Smith,
Pattern of Imperialism, ch
. 3.

70.
Barnett,
Collapse of British Power
, pp. 587–88; and, in a similar tone, Porter,
Britain, Europe and the World 1850–1982
, pp. 11 Iff.

71.
Cited in Kennedy,
Realities Behind Diplomacy
, p. 318, with further details of Britain’s economic position. See also Hobsbawm,
Industry and Empire
, pp. 356ff; Barnett,
The Audit of War
(London, 1986), passim.

72.
The best of these is K. O. Morgan,
Labour in Power 1945–1951
(Oxford, 1984), passim, and also appendices 3–5. But see also the relevant chapters in K. Harris,
Attlee
(London, 1982), and A. Bullock,
Ernest Bevin: Foreign Secretary
(Oxford, 1983). Economic policy is detailed in A. Cairncross,
Years of Recovery: British Economic Policy 1945–51
(London, 1985), and summarized in D. H. Aldcroft,
The British Economy
, vol. 1 (London, 1986), ch. 8.

73.
See especially H. M. Sachar,
Europe Leaves the Middle East 1936–1954
(London, 1972); W. R. Louis,
The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951
(Oxford, 1984); and H. Rahman, “British Post-Second World War Military Planning for the Middle East,”
Journal of Strategic Studies
, vol. 5, no. 4 (December 1982), pp. 511–30, for details of the enhanced importance of the region. The post-1945 economic value of the empire is summarized in Porter,
Lion’s Share
, pp. 319ff.

74.
On this cooperation, see T. H. Anderson,
The United States, Great Britain and the Cold War, 1944–1947
(Columbia, Mo., 1981), for early interchanges; J. Baylis,
Anglo-American Defense Relations 1939–1980
(London, 1981), for a general assessment; and Bartlett,
Global Conflict
, pp. 269ff.

75.
See the details in Bairoch, “Europe’s Gross National Product, 1800–1975,” pp. 291–92.

76.
See Bairoch, “International Industrialization Levels,” p. 304, cf. p. 296.

77.
The per capita GNP figures for 1950 are taken from S. H. Cohn,
Economic Development in the Soviet Union
(Lexington, Mass., 1970), appendix C, Table C-l. To obtain the national GNP figures, I multiplied by the population size given in “The Correlates of War” print-out.

78.
“Correlates of War” print-out data.

79.
Quotations from Sherwin,
World Destroyed
, p. 314.

80.
On which see Freedman,
Evolution of Nuclear Strategy
, passim; and the very useful survey in A. L. Friedberg, “A History of U. S. Strategic ‘Doctrine,’ 1945–1980,”
Journal of Strategic Studies
, vol. 3, no. 3 (December 1983), pp. 40ff. For some early published examples of these ponderings, see B. Brody,
The Absolute Weapon
(New York, 1946); idem,
Strategy in the Nuclear Age
(Princeton, N.J., 1959); H. Kahn,
On Thermonuclear War
(Princeton, N.J., 1960); J. Slessor,
Strategy for the West
(London, 1954); P.M.S. Blackett,
Fear, War, and the Bomb
(New York, 1948).

81.
Holloway,
Soviet Union and the Arms Race, ch
. 2; J. Prados,
The Soviet Estimate: U.S. Intelligence Analysis and Russian Military Strength
(New York, 1982), pp. 17ff; R. L. Garthoff,
Soviet Strategy in the Nuclear Age
(New York, 1958), passim; H. S. Dinerstein,
War and the Soviet Union
(London, 1962 edn.), especially chs. 1–6.

82.
Prados,
Soviet Estimate
, pp. 17–18; Freedman,
Evolution of Nuclear Strategy, ch
. 5 et seq.; T. B. Larson,
Soviet-American Rivalry
(New York, 1978), pp. 178ff.

83.
M. Growing,
Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy 1945–1952, 2
vols. (London, 1974), vol. 1, p. 184. See also L. Freedman,
Britain and Nuclear Weapons
(London, 1980); A. Pierce,
Nuclear Politics: The British Experience with an Independent Strategic Nuclear Force, 1939–1970
(London, 1972); and J. Groom,
British Thinking About Nuclear Weapons
(London, 1974).

84.
See below, p. 401; and Freedman,
Evolution of Nuclear Strategy, ch
. 21; W. Kohl,
French Nuclear Diplomacy
(Princeton, N.J., 1971), passim, with fuller references.

85.
Dallek,
American Style of Foreign Policy
, p. 130.

86.
Ibid., p. 152.

87.
Quoted in Balfour,
Adversaries
, p. 71. For the changes in American policy and opinion, see also Anderson,
United States, Great Britain, and the Cold War, 1944–1947
, chs. 6–7; J. L. Gaddis,
The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947
(New York, 1972); and B. R. Kuniholm,
The Origins of the Cold War in the Near East
(Princeton, N.J., 1980), passim.

88.
Dallek,
American Style of Foreign Policy
, p. 170.

89.
Ulam,
Expansion and Coexistence
, p. 437.

90.
G. Lichtheim,
Europe in the Twentieth Century
(London, 1972), p. 351.

91.
Balfour,
Adversaries
, pp. 8ff; and for fuller details, L. E. Davis,
The Cold War Begins: Soviet-American Conflict over Eastern Europe
(Princeton, N.J., 1974); Feis,
Churchill-Roosevelt-Stalin
, passim; B. Dovrig,
The Myth of Liberation
(Baltimore, Md., 1973); A. Polonsky,
The Great Powers and the Polish Question 1941–1945
(London, 1976); V. Rothwell,
Britain and the Cold War 1941–47
(London, 1982), espec. ch. 3; R. Douglas,
From War to Cold War 1942–1948
(London, 1981), passim.

92.
Ulam,
Expansion and Coexistence
, chs. 7–9; T. Wolfe,
Soviet Power and Europe, 1945–1970
(Baltimore, Md., 1970); M. McCauley (ed.),
Communist Power in Europe, 1944–1949
(London, 1977); W. Taubman,
Stalin’s American Policy: From Entente to Detente to Cold War
(New York, 1982), passim.

93.
Nor is it proposed to give a full bibliography of the enormous literature upon the Cold War. Balfour,
Adversaries;
Larson,
Soviet-American Rivalry;
Ulam,
Expansion and Coexistence;
and Bartlett,
Global Conflict
, chs. 10–11, all provide surveys with references to the further literature. See also note 87 above.

94.
Balfour,
Adversaries
, p. 94; M. Balfour and J. Mair,
Four-Power Control in Germany and Austria 1945–1946
(London, 1956); Rothwell,
Britain and the Cold War, ch
. 6. See also the very important collection J. Foschepoth (ed.),
Kalter Krieg und deutsche Frage
(Göttingen, 1985), espec. pt. 3.

95.
A reference to Gaddis’s excellent survey,
Strategies of Containment
.

96.
Ibid., p. 30.

97.
Ibid., p. 31.

98.
Ibid., p. 30.

99.
Anderson,
United States, Great Britain and the Cold War
, passim; Bullock,
Ernest Bevin: Foreign Secretary
, espec. ch. 10; Kuniholm,
Origins of the Cold War in the Near East
, passim; Keylor,
Twentieth-Century World
, pp. 270–71.

100.
Apart from Ulam’s book, see also the references in note 92 above; and M. D. Shulman,
Stalin’s Foreign Policy Reappraised
(New York, 1969); M. Kaser,
Comecon
(London, 1967); J. K. Hoensch,
Sowjetische Osteuropa-Politik 1945–1974
(Düsseldorf, 1977).

101.
See the references in R. Poidevin, “Die Neuorientierung der französischen Deutschlandpolitik in 1948/9,” in Foschepoth (ed.),
Kalter Krieg und deutsche Frage;
J. W. Young,
Britain, France and the Unity of Europe 1945–51
(Leicester, 1984), especially ch. 5; Douglas,
From War to Cold War
, pp. 167ff; and, for British ambivalences, see S. Greenwood, “Return to Dunkirk: The Origins of the Anglo-French Treaty of March 1947,”
Journal of Strategic Studies
, vol. 6, no. 4 (December 1983), pp. 49–65.

102.
Bullock,
Bevin
, pp. 57Iff; W. P. Davison,
The Berlin Blockade
(Princeton, N.J., 1958); the relevant chapters in R. Morgan,
The United States and West Germany 1945–73
(London, 1974); J. H. Backer,
Winds of History: The German Years of Lucius DuBignon Clay
(New York, 1983), ch. 10; M. Bell, “Die Blockade Berlins-Konfrontation der Allierten in Deutschland,” in Foschepoth (ed.),
Kalter Krieg und deutsche Frage
, pp. 217ff.

103.
Evangelista, “Stalin’s Postwar Army Reconsidered,” passim; W. LaFeber,
America, Russia, and the Cold War 1945–1975
(New York, 1976), pp. 83ff; Lord Ismay,
NATO—the First Five Years, 1949–1954
(Utrecht, 1954); Gaddis,
Strategies of Containment
, pp. 72ff; A. K. Henrikson, “The Creation of the North Atlantic Alliance, 1948–1952,”
Naval War College Review
, vol. 32, no. 3 (May/June 1980), pp. 4–39; L. S. Kaplan,
The United States and NATO: The Formative Years
(Lexington, Ky., 1984), passim.

104.
On which see A. Grosser,
West Germany from Defeat to Rearmament
(London, 1955); R. McGeehan,
The German Rearmament Question
(Urbana, 111., 1971); D. Lerner and R. Aron,
France Defeats EDC
(New York, 1957); DePorte,
Europe Between the Superpowers
, pp. 158ff; and T. Schwarz, “The Case of German Rearmament: Alliance Crisis in the ‘Golden Age,’ ”
Fletcher Forum
(Summer 1984), pp. 295–309.

105.
Bartlett,
Global Conflict
, p. 312.

106.
Ulam,
Expansion and Coexistence
, pp. 544ff; D, J. Dallin,
Soviet Foreign Policy After Stalin
(Philadelphia, Pa., 1961); R. A. Remington,
The Warsaw Pact
(Cambridge, Mass., 1971).

107.
On which see again Kolko,
Politics of War
, passim; and Thorne,
Issue of War
.

108.
Kolko,
Politics of War
, pp. 298ff; Kuniholm,
Origins of the Cold War in the Near East
, passim; Louis,
British Empire in the Middle East
, pp. 53ff.

109.
Ulam,
Expansion and Coexistence
, p. 428; and see also Anderson,
United States, Great Britain and the Cold War
, pp. 103ff.

110.
Cited in Bartlett,
Global Conflict
, p. 261 (my emphasis); and see again the works by Anderson, Louis, and Kuniholm above.

111.
Griml,
Decolonization
, pp. 183ff, is a good summary; also, Kiernan,
European Empires from Conquest to Collapse
, pp. 210ff; Holland,
European Decolonization 1918–1981
, pp. 86ff.

112.
M. Heald and L. S. Kaplan,
Culture and Diplomacy: The American Experience
(Westport, Conn., 1977), chs. 5 and 8; P. A. Varg,
Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats … 1890–1952
(Princeton, N.J., 1952); A. Iriye,
Across the Pacific
(New York, 1967); and, more specifically, B. W. Tuchman,
Stilwell and the American Experience in China
(New York, 1971); H. Feis,
The China Tangle
(Princeton, N.J., 1953), passim; N. B. Tucker,
Patterns in the Dust: Chinese-American Relations and the Recognition Controversy 1949–50
(New York, 1983).

113.
M. Schaller,
The American Occupation of Japan: The Origins of the Cold War
in Asia
(New York, 1985), which places U.S. policy toward Japan in a much wider East Asian and Cold War context; and W. S. Borden,
The Pacific Alliance
(Madison, Wis., 1984), passim.